Rhesus Macaques Macaca Mulatta Research Articles

Size and canopy characteristics of community reserves determine primate occupancy in the state of Meghalaya, India, and implications for its conservation.

Globally, the effective protected area network is one of the last resorts for conserving biodiversity. The nature of protected areas depends on the land ownership of the respective countries including India. The landholding in the northeastern states of India remains with native people, thus, 'Community Reserve' (CR) was introduced in 2003. Considering the high number of CR in Meghalaya that are home to many threatened primates, understanding their role in conserving the primates was crucial. We conducted day and night trail surveys in 32 CR of Meghalaya, and a questionnaire survey of local people for their perception of primates. We sampled basal area, tree density, canopy cover, canopy height, bamboo density, and human activity in each CR to test their influence on the occupancy of primates. We recorded the Western hoolock gibbon Hoolock hoolock, capped langur Trachypithecus pileatus, Northern pig-tailed macaque Macaca leonina, Assamese macaque Macaca assamensis, Rhesus macaque Macaca mulatta, and Bengal slow loris Nycticebus bengalensis. The primate richness and abundance were higher in the CR of Garo Hills than in the Khasi and Jaintia Hills. The gibbons had the highest patch occupancy, which was followed by capped langur, Assamese macaque, and pig-tailed macaque. Large-sized CR determined the occupancy of gibbons and Assamese macaques. Canopy cover positively influenced the occupancy of three primates except the Assamese macaque, whereas the canopy height had a positive association with three species of primates. The basal area, and tree density, negatively affected the occurrence of Assamese macaque, northern pig-tailed macaque, and capped langur. Macaques were the most hunted primates. The differential occurrence and abundance in different hill systems may be due to hunting and habitat size rather than habitat quality. Habitat restoration would improve the habitat quality with the involvement of communities to assist in retaining and avoiding the local extinction of primates.

UAV-assisted counts of group size facilitate accurate population surveys of the Critically Endangered cao vit gibbon Nomascus nasutus

AbstractGibbons are often difficult to observe in dense forest habitats using traditional ground-based methods. This makes it challenging to estimate group sizes and, in turn, population sizes. This has proven to be a key constraint on accurate monitoring of the last remaining population of the Critically Endangered cao vit gibbon Nomascus nasutus. However, new technologies are beginning to circumvent the problems associated with traditional methods. We hypothesized that, by using an unoccupied aerial vehicle (UAV) equipped with thermal and standard (RGB) cameras, we could obtain more accurate group size counts than by using ground-based observations, as fewer gibbons would be missed. We tested this during a population survey of the cao vit gibbon, finding that the thermal video footage revealed additional individuals that were not counted by ground-based surveyors. Statistically, there was strong evidence (93% probability) that UAV-derived counts were higher (by 41%) than concurrent ground-based counts. We recorded six primate groups of three species (cao vit gibbon, rhesus macaque Macaca mulatta and Assamese macaque Macaca assamensis), including 24 gibbons across four groups (c. 20% of the global population). The RGB video footage also revealed seven female gibbons, two of which were carrying infants, providing vital group composition data. These data have contributed directly to a more accurate population survey of the species than would have been possible using direct observation only. We anticipate more widespread use of UAVs in the study of gibbons and other threatened species, leading to a more robust evidence base for their conservation.

Crop raiding and livestock predation by wildlife in Khaptad National Park, Nepal

Crop raiding and livestock predation are major conservation problems throughout most protected areas in Nepal, including the Khaptad National Park (KNP). However, no information exists on the extent of crop raiding, livestock predation, and animal attacks among villages surrounding KNP. We conducted a survey of 304 households in 30 villages in four districts (Bajhang, Bajura, Doti, and Achham) in the buffer zone of KNP between 24 May and 20 June 2019, using the snowball sampling technique. All households experienced numerous major incidents of crop raiding between April 2017 and May 2019. Major wildlife involved were Wild Boar Sus scrofa, Himalayan Black Bear Ursus thibetanus, Rhesus Macaque Macaca mulatta, Barking Deer Muntiacus vaginalis, Common Leopard Panthera pardus, Golden Jackal Canis aureus, and Porcupine Hystrix spp. Of the 304 households, all had their crops raided over the past two years, 55.5% (n = 169) faced livestock predation, and 2% (n = 6) attacks resulting in death or injury. Over 40% of households reported taking mitigation measures to minimize crop raiding. Common measures such as night guarding, noise making, use of scarecrows, watch dogs, and fencing were practiced. More than half of respondents had negative opinions towards wildlife but they still believed that wildlife should be conserved. There was no or negligible correlation between general opinion of respondents towards wildlife and wildlife conservation with their education, sex, or involvement in natural resources management group. We established baseline information on crop raiding and livestock predation in villages surrounding KNP. Gathered information will be transmitted to relevant authorities to design and implement measures to mitigate such conflicts.

Diet and feeding behavior of a group of high-altitude rhesus macaques: high adaptation to food shortages and seasonal fluctuations.

Diet and feeding behavior data are crucial to a deep understanding of the behavioral response and adaptation of primates to a high-altitude environment. From August 2019 to June 2021, we collected data on the feeding behavior of a high-altitude rhesus macaque Macaca mulatta group from Yajiang County, Western Sichuan Plateau, which has an altitude of over 3,500 m. The results showed that feeding (33.0 ± 1.8%) and moving (28.3 ± 2.6%) were the dominant behavior of rhesus macaques. Macaques ate 193 food items, comprising 11 food categories from 90 species. Our study found that plant roots (30.9 ± 30.1%) and young leaves (28.0 ± 33.1%) were the main foods eaten by macaques. The preferred foods of rhesus macaques were young leaves, fruits, and seeds, and the consumption of these items was positively correlated with its food availability. When the availability of preferred foods was low, macaques took plant roots, barks, and fallen leaves as fallback foods. In particular, roots were a dominant food item in winter, and this way of feeding became a key survival strategy. Our results suggest that, facing the relative scarcity and strong seasonal fluctuations of food resources in high-altitude habitat, macaques adopt active foraging strategies, relying on a variety of food species and adjusting flexibly their food choices based on food availability, which may help to maximize the energy efficiency of high-altitude macaques.

Abstract 1325: Naturally occurring colorectal cancer in nonhuman primates used to study human immunotherapeutic agents confirms a link between DNA methylation and mismatch repair deficiency

Abstract Background Non-human primates (NHP) such as rhesus macaques with naturally occurring cancers are a proposed model for translational cancer immunotherapy (CIT) research and have generated relevant proof-of-mechanism evidence for 3 different CIT agents. NHP spontaneously develop cancers with progression patterns, histology, and clinical symptoms similar to humans. Gene suppression by DNA hypermethylation in the promoter region is the major characteristics of the CpG-island-methylator-phenotype (CIMP) described in human CRC patients but information in rhesus macaques is scarce. To further validate these animals as translational models for CIT, we conducted a deep molecular characterization of NHP colorectal cancers and established novel qPCR panels to assess DNA methylation of marker genes published for humans. Methods Our cohort (n=16) consisted of Indian-origin rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) with naturally occurring CRC (n=16, female=11). Clinical examination, imaging (contrast-enhanced CT, FDG-PET) and biopsy to confirm cancer histology were performed. Molecular characterization was done by IHC for CRC-associated mismatch repair proteins MLH1, MSH2, MSH6, and PMS2 and by PCR/electrophoresis for microsatellite instability. Ultimately, we designed DNA methylation- and rhesus-specific qPCR probes (Methylight) targeting corresponding regions as published in human patients, including CACNA1G, CDKN2A, CRABP1, MLH1, and NEUROG1 as parts of the CIMP panel and BMP3, NDRG4, and SEPTIN9 as probed for human CRC-screening. Results MLH1 deficiency by IHC, in conjunction with PMS2 absence, is observed in all NHP CRC cases, clearly exceeding frequencies reported in human CRCs (ranging from 2-15%). Moreover, we have documented microsatellite instable cases in some NHP CRCs, analog to human CRCs. DNA methylation of the MLH1 promoter region was significantly elevated in CRCs (100% of CRCs >2-fold, p<0.0001) compared to healthy colon. We hypothesized that this elevation would suppress MLH1 mRNA expression. This hypothesis of epigenetic suppression is corroborated by both qPCR and RNA sequencing which demonstrate significantly downregulated levels of MLH1 mRNA. DNA methylation of the other markers is less consistent but revealed CIMP positive and CIMP negative cases in our NHP CRC cohort. Conclusions Transcriptional suppression of MLH1 by promoter hypermethylation is a major and widespread driver of genetic instability and carcinogenesis in rhesus macaque colorectal cancer. Differential DNA methylation in the promoter regions as observed in NHP CRCs can provide a screening target for liquid biopsies. This work highlights the possible translatability of naturally occurring NHP cancers for human cancer immunotherapy research and can be further explored in future tumor-bearing monkey trials. Citation Format: Simon Deycmar, Brendan Johnson, Declan Ryan, Shane Sills, David Caudell, Greg Dugan, George Schaaf, Christopher Whitlow, Kiran Kumar Solingapuram Sai, Betsy Ferguson, Benjamin Bimber, Karina Ray, Cassandra Cullin, Brandy Dozier, Armando Burgos, Michael Hettich, Bruno Gomes, Jehad Charo, Maurizio Ceppi, Mark Cline. Naturally occurring colorectal cancer in nonhuman primates used to study human immunotherapeutic agents confirms a link between DNA methylation and mismatch repair deficiency [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the American Association for Cancer Research Annual Meeting 2022; 2022 Apr 8-13. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2022;82(12_Suppl):Abstract nr 1325.

The gut microbiome and antibiotic resistome of chronic diarrhea rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) and its similarity to the human gut microbiome

BackgroundChronic diarrhea is a common disease causing morbidity and mortality of captive rhesus macaques (RMs, Macaca mulatta). Chronic diarrhea in RMs is typically characterized by long-term diarrhea and a weak response to antibiotic treatment. Diarrhea is also a common disease in humans and can cause death. However, the etiology of about half of diarrheal cases of humans is still unclear. Therefore, we performed shotgun metagenomic sequencing to characterize the differences in the gut microbiome and resistome of chronic diarrhea RMs and asymptomatic individuals.ResultsOur results showed Lactobacillus spp. (mainly L. johnsonii, L. reuteri and L. amylovorus) were significantly depleted in chronic diarrhea RM guts compared to asymptomatic individuals (5.2 vs 42.4%). Functional annotation of genes suggested these Lactobacillus spp. carried genes involved in the adhesion of intestinal epithelial cells and production of bacteriocin. Chronic diarrhea RM guts also had a significantly greater abundance of many other gut bacteria, including mucin-degrading bacteria and opportunistic pathogens. The metabolic pathways of chronic diarrhea RM gut microbiome were enriched in aerobactin biosynthesis, while the metabolic pathways of asymptomatic RM gut microbiome were enriched in the production of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs). Chronic diarrhea RM guts had a significantly greater abundance of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs), such as ermF, aph(3’)-IIIa, ermB, and floR. The strains isolated from feces and tissue fluid of chronic diarrhea RMs had higher resistance rates to the majority of tested antibiotics, but not cephamycin and carbapenem antibiotics. Gut microbial composition comparisons showed that several captive nonhuman primate (NHP) guts were more similar to the guts of humans with a non-westernized diet than humans with a westernized diet. Chronic diarrhea RM gut microbiome was strikingly similar to rural-living humans with diarrhea and humans with a non-westernized diet than asymptomatic RMs.ConclusionsOur results suggested chronic diarrhea significantly altered the composition and metabolic pathways of the RM gut microbiome. The frequent use of antibiotics caused antibiotic resistance in chronic diarrhea RM gut microbiome with serious consequences for individual treatment and survival. The findings of this study will help us to improve the effective prevention and treatment of diarrhea in RMs.5PCYmSGW83HS4dQavLEGeBVideo

Experiencing a Natural Disaster Accelerates Aging of the Immune System

Extreme adverse events such as natural disasters can accelerate disease progression and promote chronic inflammation. These phenotypes also increase in prevalence with age, suggesting that experiencing adversity might accelerate aging of the immune system. Adversity can induce persistent gene regulatory changes which may mechanistically explain the immune similarities between aging and adversity. To test how immune system aging is accelerated following a natural disaster, we measured the impact of Hurricane Maria on peripheral blood immune cell gene expression in a population of free-ranging rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) from before (n=435) versus after (n=108) Hurricane Maria. Experiencing Hurricane Maria altered the expression of 260 genes (FDR<10%), which were primarily involved in the inflammatory response. There was significant overlap in these hurricane-affected and age-associated genes with 40% (n=104) being associated with both the hurricane and aging, more than double the expected amount (Fisher’s Exact Test OR=3.7, p=4.06 x 10–21). The effects of the hurricane and aging on gene expression were also significantly correlated (rho=0.23, p=1.33 x 10-84), suggesting that they alter similar molecular pathways in the immune system. Further, we found that animals that experienced the hurricane had a gene expression profile that was, on average, 1.6 years older than animals that did not experience the hurricane (the equivalent of 6–7 years in a human lifespan, p=0.003). Together, our results provide some of the first evidence that extreme natural disasters mechanistically accelerates aging in the immune system.

Heterogeneity of performances in several inhibitory control tasks: male rhesus macaques are more easily distracted than females.

Inhibitory control, the ability to override a dominant response, is crucial in many aspects of everyday life. In animal studies, striking individual variations are often largely ignored and their causes rarely considered. Hence, our aims were to systematically investigate individual variability in inhibitory control, to replicate the most common causes of individual variation (age, sex and rank) and to determine if these factors had a consistent effect on three main components of inhibitory control (inhibition of a distraction, inhibition of an action, inhibition of a cognitive set). We tested 21 rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) in a battery of validated touchscreen tasks. We first found individual variations in all inhibitory control performances. We then demonstrated that males had poorer performances to inhibit a distraction and that middle-aged individuals exhibited poorer performance in the inhibition of a cognitive set. Hence, the factors of age and sex were not consistently associated with the main components of inhibitory control, suggesting a multi-faceted structure. The rank of the subjects did not influence any inhibitory control performances. This study adopts a novel approach for animal behaviour studies and gives new insight into the individual variability of inhibitory control which is crucial to understand its evolutionary underpinnings.

Reduced neuronal population in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in infant macaques infected with simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV)

Pediatric HIV infection remains a global health crisis with an estimated 150,000 new mother-to-child (MTCT) infections each year. Antiretroviral therapy (ART) has improved childhood survival, but only an estimated 53% of children worldwide have access to treatment. Adding to the health crisis is the neurological impact of HIV on the developing brain, in particular cognitive and executive function, which persists even when ART is available. Imaging studies suggest structural, connectivity, and functional alterations in perinatally HIV-infected youth. However, the paucity of histological data limits our ability to identify specific cortical regions that may underlie the clinical manifestations. Utilizing the pediatric simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) infection model in infant macaques, we have previously shown that early-life SIV infection depletes the neuronal population in the hippocampus. Here, we expand on these previous studies to investigate the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC). A total of 11 ART-naïve infant rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) from previous studies were retrospectively analyzed. Infant macaques were either intravenously (IV) inoculated with highly virulent SIVmac251 at ~1 week of age and monitored for 6–10 weeks or orally challenged with SIVmac251 from week 9 of age onwards with a monitoring period of 10–23 weeks post-infection (19–34 weeks of age), and SIV-uninfected controls were euthanized at 16–17 weeks of age. Both SIV-infected groups show a significant loss of neurons along with evidence of ongoing neuronal death. Oral- and IV-infected animals showed a similar neuronal loss which was negatively correlated to chronic viremia levels as assessed by an area under the curve (AUC) analysis. The loss of dlPFC neurons may contribute to the rapid neurocognitive decline associated with pediatric HIV infection.

Supplemental Material for Inheritance of Hormonal Stress Response and Temperament in Infant Rhesus Macaques (Macaca Mulatta): Nonadditive and Sex-Specific Effects

Supplemental Material for Inheritance of Hormonal Stress Response and Temperament in Infant Rhesus Macaques (Macaca Mulatta): Nonadditive and Sex-Specific Effects

Improved Training and Semen Collection Outcomes Using the Closed Box Chair for Macaques.

Simple SummaryRefining procedures is an important part of promoting animal welfare. One area in which refinements are particularly important is animal restraint. Monkeys and other animals may be restrained for a variety of reasons, including sperm collection. In this study, we compared the use of a closed box chair (CBC) as a potential refinement over the more traditional open restraint chair (ORC) for restraint. We trained 34 male rhesus macaques to enter either the CBC or the ORC, allow restraint, and provide a semen sample. While all monkeys were reliably trained for the CBC, only 75% completed the task in the ORC. Further, it took longer to train the monkeys for the ORC than the CBC. Importantly, monkeys restrained in the CBC produced a higher ejaculatory volume and a higher sperm concentration than those in the ORC. Taken together, these data suggest that the CBC reduces stress for the animals while improving scientific outcomes, and thus is a refinement over the ORC.Collaborative semen collection in monkeys is a valuable tool in research, animal collection management, and conservation efforts. To obtain samples, monkeys are often restrained in open restraint chairs (ORC) with the “pole and collar” technique. While commonly used, this restraint is not tolerated by all individuals; some become anxious or aggressive towards the poles and people. In an effort to refine this procedure and improve welfare of the monkeys, we examined the use of a “closed box chair” (CBC), a clear, plexiglass box in which the monkey is trained to sit for sperm collection. The CBC does not require pole and collar, and although legs are secured, the arms and neck are not restrained. The use of CBCs has increased in recent years; however, there are few studies demonstrating its effects on scientific outcomes. We used positive reinforcement techniques to train 34 adult male rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) to provide semen samples using either the ORC or the CBC. While all CBC monkeys (n = 14) were reliably trained for this procedure, only 75% of ORC (n = 20) males completed the training (p = 0.04). It took significantly less time to train animals in the CBC than the ORC (201.0 vs. 412.4 min; p <0.001). In a controlled subset, males restrained with ORC (n = 7) produced a significantly lower ejaculatory volume than those collected by CBC (n = 10) (297.6 µL vs. 522.1 µL respectively; p = 0.04) and had a lower concentration of sperm (186.0 × 106/mL vs. 367.5 × 106/mL respectively; p = 0.017), although there were no differences with respect to sperm motility (p = 0.15). Our data suggest the closed box chair technique reduces stress on the animals while enhancing semen quality, supporting the use of the CBC as an important refinement.

Divergent Enteroviruses from Macaques with Chronic Diarrhea.

ABSTRACTWe report the draft genome sequences of five novel members of the family Picornaviridae that were isolated from the stool of rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) with chronic diarrhea. The strains were named NOLA-1 through NOLA-5 because the macaques were residents of the Tulane National Primate Research Center.

The costs and benefits of coexistence: What determines people's willingness to live near nonhuman primates?

Living near primate species has positive and negative outcomes for human communities. While most studies focus on understanding people's perceptions regarding the adverse consequences of interacting with primates, less is known about people's willingness to coexist with primates or reasons that may promote human-primate coexistence. We surveyed 794 people co-living with four different primate species-rhesus macaque Macaca mulatta, bonnet macaque Macaca radiata, lion-tailed macaque Macaca silenus, and Hanuman langur Semnopithecus dussumieri-in southern and western India to understand how people perceived the costs and benefits of coexistence. The results of our semi-structured interview study revealed that although tangible costs (i.e., financial losses from primate depredation) primarily drive people's stated tolerance for primate presence, intangible benefits from primates (i.e., their ecological, existence, sentience, and religious values) also critically affect attitudes towards coexistence. Amongst the four species, people associated rhesus macaques with the greatest costs and fewest benefits, lion-tailed macaques with the lowest costs, and bonnet macaques with the highest benefits. People preferred lion-tailed macaques and Hanuman langurs more than bonnet and rhesus macaques, and affection for a species shaped how people viewed costs accruing from the species. People's preferences for species were influenced by their existence, ecological, and sentience values more than their religious value. We suggest that intangible benefits influence people's fondness for a primate species and this, in turn, shapes how people perceive costs resulting from the species. Hence strengthening people's perceptions of the intangible benefits they receive from primate species will improve human tolerance for living near primates. We argue that there is a need to understand the context of human-primate conflicts beyond the cost aspects and focus on the benefits to improve human-primate coexistence.

Abstract 256: Sequence conservation of BRCA1 intron-exon junctions

Abstract Introduction: Clinical sequencing of BRCA1 and BRCA2 exons and intron-exon boundaries reveals sequence variants of uncertain clinical significance (VUSs). Many BRCA1/2 sequence variants near intron-exon boundaries are potentially pathogenic by disrupting normal splicing patterns. However, molecular analysis of these potential effects is complicated by naturally occurring alternative splicing products. It is not yet clear which of these are required for normal gene functions. We therefore aligned intron-exon boundary sequence strings for 21 BRCA1 exons in order to 1) determine whether VUSs near intron-exon boundaries disrupt conserved sequences, and 2) determine whether sequences flanking exons involved in alternative splicing events are sufficiently conserved. Methods: Sequence strings representing intron-exon junction regions were prepared for 21 BRCA1 exons. Each string consisted of 20 bases of 5' intron, the 5'-most 20 bases of each exon, the 3'-most 20 bases of each exon, and 20 bases of the 3' intron. Strings were similarly prepared for chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes), bonobo (Pan paniscus), gorilla (Gorilla gorilla), orangutan (Pongo abelii), baboon (Papio anubis), and Rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta). Each string was aligned using the MUSCLE multiple sequence alignment method. Results: Splice junction sequence conservation was from 68%-100% conserved (mean % conservation, 92.7%; median, 95%). In almost all cases, sequence differences were transitions or differing numbers of thymines in poly-T tracts. The two most divergent intron-exon junction regions flanked exons 17 and 18 (70% and 68% similar, respectively). The human exon 16-17 junction is not conserved in in gorilla, and the human exon 18-19 junction is not conserved in macaques. These differences account for the divergence among primates at these sites. Seven alternative splicing events in human BRCA1 are classified as “predominant,” and all are predicted to retain the translational reading frame. All of these alternative splicing events occur in nearly perfectly conserved splicing environments, suggesting they may occur in other species as well and possibly contribute to gene function. Seven clinically identified VUSs that fall within the human BRCA1 splice junction region are wild type base differences in other primates. c.231G&amp;gt;A from human exon 5 is seen in baboon, c.441+18C&amp;gt;T in human intron 6 is seen in orangutan, c.455T&amp;gt;C in exon 7 is seen in orangutan, c.547+7G&amp;gt;A in intron 7 is seen in macaque and baboon, and c.4097-10G&amp;gt;A, c.4097-20C&amp;gt;T, and c.4115G&amp;gt;A, all in or near exon 11, are seen in macaque, baboon, and orangutan. These observations suggest these VUSs are likely to be benign polymorphisms and not pathogenic variants. We note, however, that c.547+7G&amp;gt;A disrupts a candidate intron splicing enhancer as predicted by RegRNA 2.0 and believe this variant warrants further study. Citation Format: Talia Ishfaq, Maryam Salik, Uzma Jafry, Zaain Ahmad, James D. Fackenthal. Sequence conservation of BRCA1 intron-exon junctions [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the American Association for Cancer Research Annual Meeting 2021; 2021 Apr 10-15 and May 17-21. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2021;81(13_Suppl):Abstract nr 256.

Rich Club Characteristics of Alcohol-Naïve Functional Brain Networks Predict Future Drinking Phenotypes in Rhesus Macaques.

Purpose: A fundamental question for Alcohol use disorder (AUD) is how and when naïve brain networks are reorganized in response to alcohol consumption. The current study aimed to determine the progression of alcohol’s effect on functional brain networks during transition from the naïve state to chronic consumption.Procedures: Resting-state brain networks of six female rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta) monkeys were acquired using magnetoencephalography (MEG) prior to alcohol exposure and after free-access to alcohol using a well-established model of chronic heavy alcohol consumption. Functional brain network metrics were derived at each time point.Results: The average connection frequency (p < 0.024) and membership of the Rich Club (p < 0.022) changed significantly over time. Metrics describing network topology remained relatively stable from baseline to free-access drinking. The minimum degree of the Rich Club prior to alcohol exposure was significantly predictive of future free-access drinking (r = −0.88, p < 0.001).Conclusions: Results suggest naïve brain network characteristics may be used to predict future alcohol consumption, and that alcohol consumption alters functional brain networks, shifting hubs and Rich Club membership away from previous regions in a non-systematic manner. Further work to refine these relationships may lead to the identification of a high-risk drinking phenotype.

Proteomic Analysis of Non-human Primate Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells During Burkholderia mallei Infection Reveals a Role of Ezrin in Glanders Pathogenesis.

Burkholderia mallei, the causative agent of glanders, is a gram-negative intracellular bacterium. Depending on different routes of infection, the disease is manifested by pneumonia, septicemia, and chronic infections of the skin. B. mallei poses a serious biological threat due to its ability to infect via aerosol route, resistance to multiple antibiotics and to date there are no US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved vaccines available. Induction of innate immunity, inflammatory cytokines and chemokines following B. mallei infection, have been observed in in vitro and small rodent models; however, a global characterization of host responses has never been systematically investigated using a non-human primate (NHP) model. Here, using a liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) approach, we identified alterations in expression levels of host proteins in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) originating from naïve rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta), African green monkeys (Chlorocebus sabaeus), and cynomolgus macaques (Macaca fascicularis) exposed to aerosolized B. mallei. Gene ontology (GO) analysis identified several statistically significant overrepresented biological annotations including complement and coagulation cascade, nucleoside metabolic process, vesicle-mediated transport, intracellular signal transduction and cytoskeletal protein binding. By integrating an LC-MS/MS derived proteomics dataset with a previously published B. mallei host-pathogen interaction dataset, a statistically significant predictive protein-protein interaction (PPI) network was constructed. Pharmacological perturbation of one component of the PPI network, specifically ezrin, reduced B. mallei mediated interleukin-1β (IL-1β). On the contrary, the expression of IL-1β receptor antagonist (IL-1Ra) was upregulated upon pretreatment with the ezrin inhibitor. Taken together, inflammasome activation as demonstrated by IL-1β production and the homeostasis of inflammatory response is critical during the pathogenesis of glanders. Furthermore, the topology of the network reflects the underlying molecular mechanism of B. mallei infections in the NHP model.

Assessing the effectiveness of public awareness-raising initiatives for the Hainan gibbon Nomascus hainanus

AbstractMany protected areas conduct awareness-raising activities to increase local knowledge and support conservation programmes, but the effectiveness of such activities is rarely assessed. Public awareness-raising has been carried out since the early 2000s around Bawangling National Nature Reserve, Hainan, China, to improve conservation knowledge about the Critically Endangered Hainan gibbon Nomascus hainanus, one of the rarest mammals. We conducted 207 interviews in 25 villages around Bawangling National Nature Reserve to evaluate the outcome of previous conservation education, through comparison of variation in local respondent knowledge and attitudes, and specific enquiries about sources of knowledge acquisition. Likelihood of accurate responses to most of our questions regarding the species was positively correlated with local exposure to gibbon-themed billboards and murals, and respondents exhibited greater knowledge about several key conservation indices for gibbons compared to their knowledge about sympatrically occurring rhesus macaques Macaca mulatta. Many respondents specifically reported they knew about local existence, population size, conservation status, and threats to gibbons from past awareness-raising activities, with village education sessions and billboards widely identified as key sources of information. However, other known awareness-raising approaches have had little detectable effect on shaping local conservation awareness. Although educational activities have improved awareness about gibbons and their conservation requirements in relative terms, overall levels of knowledge remain low in many important areas and ongoing improvement of local awareness is still needed, in particular around poorly-understood topics such as gibbon conservation status, rarity and threats, and for socio-demographic groups possessing less conservation knowledge.

Swimming and diving as social play in juvenile rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta)

Abstract Although play is ubiquitous throughout the animal kingdom, and in primates especially, the ultimate explanations and proximate mechanisms of play are not well understood. Previous research proposes that primate play may be important for the development of cognitive skills including executive function, emotional regulation, and impulse control, and could help to build social skills and network connections needed in later life. However, many of these hypotheses have not been thoroughly tested. Here, we report observations of novel play behaviour that could provide unique opportunities to explore these hypotheses: young rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) engaging in aquatic social play in a naturalistic setting. Based on our observations, we propose that aquatic play has social elements that make it ideal for testing ultimate explanations of primate play and hypotheses about the cognitive mechanisms that support it.

The safety and efficacy of BCG encapsulated alginate particle (BEAP) against M.tb H37Rv infection in Macaca mulatta : A pilot study

Due to the limited utility of Bacillus Calmette–Guérin (BCG), the only approved vaccine available for tuberculosis, there is a need to develop a more effective and safe vaccine. We evaluated the safety and efficacy of a dry powder aerosol (DPA) formulation of BCG encapsulated alginate particle (BEAP) and the conventional intradermal BCG immunization in infant rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). The infant macaques were immunized intratracheally with DPA of BEAP into the lungs. Animals were monitored for their growth, behaviour, any adverse and allergic response. The protective efficacy of BEAP was estimated by the ex-vivo H37Rv infection method. Post-immunization with BEAP, granulocytes count, weight gain, chest radiography, levels of liver secreted enzymes, cytokines associated with inflammation like TNF and IL-6 established that BEAP is non-toxic and it does not elicit an allergic response. The T cells isolated from BEAP immunized animals’ blood, upon stimulation with M.tb antigen, secreted high levels of IFN-γ, TNF, IL-6 and IL-2. The activated T cells from BEAP group, when co-cultured with M.tb infected macrophages, eliminated largest number of infected macrophages compared to the BCG and control group. This study suggests the safety and efficacy of BEAP in Non-human primate model.

Dependence of the leopardPanthera pardus fuscain Jaipur, India, on domestic animals

AbstractThe ecology and predator–prey dynamics of large felids in the tropics have largely been studied in natural systems where wild ungulates constitute the majority of the prey base. However, in tropical countries where communities are primarily agrarian, the high density of domestic animals in human-dominated landscapes can be a potential prey source for large carnivores. We demonstrate almost complete dependence of the Vulnerable leopardPanthera pardus fuscain the Jhalana Reserve Forest in Jaipur, north-west India on domestic animals as prey. We analysed 132 leopard scats collected during the dry season of November 2017–April 2018. Domestic animals comprised the majority of the leopards' prey (89.5% frequency of occurrence): dogsCanis lupus familiaris(44%), catsFelis catus(13%), goatsCapra aegagrus hircus(16%) and cattleBos taurus(15%). Wild species, which occurred in the leopards' diet at a relatively low frequency, were rodents, the hareLepus nigricollis, small Indian civetViverricula indica, rhesus macaqueMacaca mulatta, northern plains grey langurSemnopithecus entellusand mongooseHerpestes edwardsii. Diet is also a function of availability of potential prey, but no data are available on the density of the leopard's wild prey species in Jhalana Reserve Forest. Nevertheless, our results suggest that abundance of domestic prey around Jhalana Reserve Forest sustains the c. 25 known leopards. We conclude that these leopards, by preying on feral dogs in an urban environment, could be considered as suppliers of a service to the human population amongst whom they thrive, although this potentially exposes the leopards to the canine distemper virus.