Revolution In England Research Articles

Impact of the Potato on Society

The first impact of the potato on society was the intimate relationship between the domestication of the potato and the evolution of Andean civilization which affected Andean culture and religion. In addition to food potatoes were used for several non-food purposes. In the Inca Empire the freeze-dried chuno was collected as taxes from the peasants and disbursed from imperial storehouses to labor gangs for building roads, waging war, and erecting monuments. After the Spanish conquest chuno was used to feed the slaves in the Andean silver and gold mines. This in turn set the stage for flooding the Spanish and eventually the global market with these precious metals and subsequent world-wide inflation of consumer goods. The potato became the major contributor to the European population explosion of 1750–1850 which in turn resulted in increased urbanization and contributed to the underpinning of the Industrial Revolution in England in the nineteenth century. By feeding rapidly growing populations the potato permitted a small number of nations in northern Europe to assert dominion over much of the world between 1750 and 1950. The failure of the potato crop in Ireland in the 1840s led Britain to repeal the protectionist Corn Laws and set the country on a path of free trade. At least one million Irish refugees emigrated, mostly to North America where they left a great legacy. The past 50 years have seen a major global shift in potato production towards many developing countries in Asia, including China and India. Throughout its history the potato has provided bread for the poor. Today it contributes to food security on a global scale. The potato’s depiction on postage stamps demonstrates the esteem in which it is held worldwide and the many references to the potato in art, literature and folklore worldwide are evidence how it has become interwoven in the cultures of many societies today.

Ayesha Mukherjee.Penury into Plenty: Dearth and the Making of Knowledge in Early Modern England.

In this, her first book, Ayesha Mukherjee addresses the cultural centrality of dearth, or rather the fear of it, in 1590s England—a subject that might at first glance appear narrow, but actually opens up deep questions about how early modern English men and women understood and responded to the social, economic, and environmental changes they were experiencing. At the heart of the study is the intriguing character of Sir Hugh Platt, polymathic author and experimenter who recently appeared in Deborah E. Harkness’s The Jewel House: Elizabethan London and the Scientific Revolution (2007), the title of which Harkness borrowed from Platt’s own central publication. Whereas Harkness depicted Platt’s London as the crucible of the scientific revolution in England, Mukherjee emphasizes its vulnerability, particularly in the dismal 1590s, when dearth was a pressing fear. To Mukherjee, this was the overriding concern that united Platt’s eclectic interests—ranging from medicine, food preservation, and manuring to cookery, limning, and pencil making—although this “dearth science” (as Mukherjee labels it) was much more than the obsession of an eccentric individual. Son of one of London’s wealthiest entrepreneurs, Platt enjoyed strong connections with London’s artisans, as well as the rich gentry, and his shop (the original “Jewel House”) was at the center of networks that extended throughout the city and beyond. From this vantage point Platt was able to compile information on a breathtaking range of innovative techniques—twenty-five recipes for black ink, to take one example cited from his manuscripts—that he would then absorb into his own experimental practices, publish, or simply make available for sale.

James VII's Multiconfessional Experiment and the Scottish Revolution of 1688-1690

Recently, historians have contended that the Scottish revolution of 1688–90 was at least as radical as the simultaneous revolution in England. This article makes a complementary claim: that James VII and II's policy of tolerating almost all Christian worship, which was introduced first in Scotland, had a greater impact in the northern kingdom than has previously been recognized. Using hitherto unexamined local church court papers, the article argues that James's indulgences of 1687 initiated a ‘multiconfessional experiment’, a period of largely unfettered competition between religious groups that lasted until the overthrow of the king in the revolution. Not only Scotland's small Catholic and Quaker communities, but also a large body of presbyterian dissenters, benefited from this multiconfessionalism. The revival of presbyterianism ultimately allowed for the re-establishment of presbyterian government in 1690. Though there was peaceful coexistence between rival religious groups in 1687–8, the outbreak of religious violence at the revolution suggests that most Scots remained intolerant of cultural difference. The wider importance of James's experiment was to reveal how difficult it was for an established Church accustomed to uniformity to perform vital social functions – including poor relief and moral discipline – in conditions of religious pluralism.

Losing touch with nature: literature and the new science in sixteenth-century England

During the scientific revolution, the dominant Aristotelian picture of nature, which cohered closely with common sense and ordinary perceptual experience, was completely overthrown. Although we now take for granted the ideas that the earth revolves around the sun and that seemingly solid matter is composed of tiny particles, these concepts seemed equally counterintuitive, anxiety provoking, and at odds with our ancestors' embodied experience of the world. In Losing Touch with Nature, Mary Thomas Crane examines the complex way that the new science's threat to intuitive Aristotelian notions of the natural world was treated and reflected in the work of Edmund Spenser, Christopher Marlowe, William Shakespeare, and other early modern writers. Crane breaks new ground by arguing that sixteenth-century ideas about the universe were actually much more sophisticated, rational, and observation-based than many literary critics have assumed. The earliest stages of the scientific revolution in England were most powerfully experienced as a divergence of intuitive science from official science, causing a schism between embodied human experience of the world and learned explanations of how the world works. This fascinating book traces the growing awareness of that epistemological gap through textbooks and natural philosophy treatises to canonical poetry and plays, presciently registering and exploring the magnitude of the human loss that accompanied the beginnings of modern science.

The Episode of the Foundry Workers’ Strike in Hector Berlioz's Opera Benvenuto Cellini

Auguste Barbier and Léon de Wailly's libretto for Hector Berlioz's 1838 opera Benvenuto Cellini contains a work stoppage by the foundry workers who are casting the Italian Renaissance artist's sculpture of Perseus and the slain Medusa. While Cellini describes no such event in his autobiographical Vita, he does recount another story that may have suggested to the librettists their invention of the workers’ strike episode. Contemporary Romantic writers, including Alfred de Vigny and Victor Hugo, in their theater and verse, treated the themes of the suffering of industrial workers and the insensitivity of industrialists. Barbier published, also in 1838, Lazare, a collection of satiric poems that analyzed the social problems caused by the Industrial Revolution in Britain, above all the exploitation and suffering of the working class. The France of the 1830s saw a notable increase in the pace of industrialization, the formation of the proletariat and the manufacturing capitalist class, and the first laborers’ strikes. It is in this historical and literary context that one can best understand the incorporation of the apocryphal and anachronistic work stoppage episode into the opera libretto.

The Major Developments of Social Issues in Management Thinking, From the Early 1900s Through to Today

The reality today is that the competitive world of organisations, especially business organisations, is so complex and so fast changing that managers are continually looking for methods and approaches to implement that would enable their organisations to remain competitive. In this task they are assisted by various writers and scholars who have contributed ideas and theories about this most complex of topics that is the ‘Management of Organisations.’ Keeping in mind a basic proposition that to understand the present one must know something about the past, this essay, which discusses the Major Developments of Social Issues in Management Thinking, from the early 1900s through to today, reviews the history of management thought concentrating on the twentieth century to the present, discussing the organised systematic thinking about management from the Industrial Revolution in England and then in the United states, the development of the Scientific Management Approach, Classical Management Theory, and Neoclassical Theory, the more contemporary approaches, that is, the Behavioural, Decision-Making, and Integrative Approaches, and concludes with a discussion of the status of management thought as the twenty-first century unfolds. As this essay is read, two questions most always be kept in mind to enhance the reader’s understanding. The first question is what preceded the development of a particular way of thinking about management? The second question is what was the world like, in particular the world of work, at the time the Theory or Approach emerged.

英法土地所有制变迁比较研究—封建社会向资本主义社会的过渡

中世纪的英国和法国都以封建领主制下的庄园经济为主要经济形态，土地所有制表现为土地等级所有，然而在早期资本主义因素出现以后，两国的土地所有制却向不同的方向转变。英国资本主义革命以后，土地制度逐渐演化成资本主义大土地所有制，而法国则形成了以小农土地所有制为主、多种土地所有制形式并存的状况。两个相同国家在土地制度的演变方面出现同源异流的原因是多方面的，其中经济发展水平、政治传统、法律制度发展、文化宗教等因素起到至关重要的作用。英法两国长达几百年的土地制度变迁过程将给我国土地政策的制定提供一定借鉴。 In the middle age, manorial system existed in both England and France, and it was the main land system in the two countries. When the early Capitalism factors appeared, the land ownership of the two countries changed in different ways into two different systems. After the Bourgeois Revolution in England, the agricultural capitalists became the owners of most lands in the country, and there were few farmers. In France, however, the land system went to a different way after the Great Revolution. Most farmers had their small lands and their children could inherit them. The economy, politics and culture were the main factors that affected the development of the two countries’ land ownership systems. The process of hundreds of years of land system change in England and France can provide certain reference to the formulation of Chinese land policy.

John Donoghue. Fire under the Ashes: An Atlantic History of the English Revolution.

A decade ago, new scholarly interest in the English Revolution was sparked by Carla Gardina Pestana's The English Atlantic in an Age of Revolution, 1640–1661 (2004). John Donoghue acknowledges Pestana's work and goes deeper into the English side of the subject, particularly into the role of a single London neighborhood—the Coleman Street Ward—in the revolution in England and in its colonies. His claims are thought provoking, his findings are intriguing, and comparisons with Pestana's work are inevitable. The “godly entrepot” (p. 5) of Coleman Street Ward was home to a surprising number of merchants and preachers who were prominent in both the magisterial and radical aspects of the Revolution, the Commonwealth, and the Protectorate. Donoghue discovers 21 merchant revolutionaries, led by Martin Noell, Maurice Thomson, and Isaac Pennington, who encouraged and effectively used local militancy in their parliamentary politics while profiting from trade and military ventures to the English empire. Noell and Thomson transported tens of thousands of Scots, Irish, and English prisoners of war and other migrants as “bonded slaves,” as well as African slaves, to English America. These merchants helped create the Navigation Act of 1651 that was foundational to English “plantation capitalism” and they profitably armed and provisioned the fleets that brought royalist Barbados and Virginia into subjection, as well as the fleet and army that captured Jamaica. Donoghue uses class rhetoric unapologetically, and praises Marxist historians generously, but this is no Marxist analysis. Economics are always off stage in this detailed study of politics and religion.

On religiosity and commercial life

Revolutionary developments in the social organization of capitalism give birth to revolutionary developments in ideas about the economy and value. Just as the industrial revolution in England in the late eighteenth century saw the emergence of political economy and the labor theory of value, and the age of imperialism in the late nineteenth century saw the emergence of economics and the marginal utility theory of value, so the age of globalization in the late twentiethand early twenty-first centuries has seen the emergence of cultural economy and a new posthumanist theory of value that attributes agency to things. What are the assumptions that inform this new posthuman theory of value? Does it dehumanize anthropology, or does it pave the way for an anthropology of the future based on a radically new ethics of possibility? Whatever, the provocations of cultural economy demand a robust debate.

Untangling the hybrid nature of modern pig genomes: a mosaic derived from biogeographically distinct and highly divergent Sus scrofa populations.

The merging of populations after an extended period of isolation and divergence is a common phenomenon, in natural settings as well as due to human interference. Individuals with such hybrid origins contain genomes that essentially form a mosaic of different histories and demographies. Pigs are an excellent model species to study hybridization because European and Asian wild boars diverged ~1.2 Mya, and pigs were domesticated independently in Europe and Asia. During the Industrial Revolution in England, pigs were imported from China to improve the local pigs. This study utilizes the latest genomics tools to identify the origin of haplotypes in European domesticated pigs that are descendant from Asian and European populations. Our results reveal fine-scale haplotype structure representing different ancient demographic events, as well as a mosaic composition of those distinct histories due to recently introgressed haplotypes in the pig genome. As a consequence, nucleotide diversity in the genome of European domesticated pigs is higher when at least one haplotype of Asian origin is present, and haplotype length correlates negatively with recombination frequency and nucleotide diversity. Another consequence is that the inference of past effective population size is influenced by the background of the haplotypes in an individual, but we demonstrate that by careful sorting based on the origin of haplotypes, both distinct demographic histories can be reconstructed. Future detailed mapping of the genomic distribution of variation will enable a targeted approach to increase genetic diversity of captive and wild populations, thus facilitating conservation efforts in the near future.

Modeling Natural Gas Prices Volatility

Researches done so far indicate that oil reserves around the word will most probably have been used up in 50 year’s time. This fact has necessitated the researches and use of new energy sources which can be alternative to oil, the most commonly used energy source around the world. Unforgettable Chernobyl nuclear disaster in 1980s, in Ukraine, caused to see the energy glass half empty; and this negative viewpoint has got more acute after the radiation leakage in Fukushima power plant which was damaged in the earthquake in Japan, in 2011. Furthermore, hydroelectric power plants have provoked reaction from many eco-warriors and organizations as they cause ecological disequilibrium through floods in natural habitat. Moreover, it will be pointless to mention coal-fired thermal power plants, which created the term “year without summer” due to the air pollution they caused during Industrial Revolution in England between 18th and 19th centuries. When the topic is energy and its production, market conditions, in which inputs enabling production are dealt in, get affected from various outside/exterior factors. Dynamics of these input markets which are based on delicate balances change constantly; and thus, these changes become influential on aforementioned input prices. Thinking markets selling oil and its derivatives, it becomes more comprehensible that dynamics are significant and related to each other. Without a doubt, one of the energy inputs which are closely dependent on these critical market conditions is natural gas prices. In this study, stability of daily natural gas prices between 1997 and 2012 will be researched and its volatility will be tried to be modeled via ARCH&GARCH model family..

Constitutional Constraints, Organizational Preferences, and Qualitative Methods: A Replication and Reassessment of North and Weingast

Douglass North and Barry Weingast’s 1989 article, “Constitutions and Commitment” (“N&W”) is a landmark contribution to a plethora of social science literatures. The authors’ broad argument, namely that the balanced constitutional settlement following the 1688 Glorious Revolution in England was the primary cause of the Financial Revolution that followed, is a staple of countless comparative politics, economics, and legal studies courses. Yet despite the substantial attention that the study has garnered, to this author’s knowledge there exists no study that assesses the validity of N&W’s claims on their own empirical terms: namely, through a qualitative replication and examination of the sources upon which their contribution is based. Given recent drives to improve the transparency and replicability of qualitative research, particularly on the part of the American Political Science Association Council, this paper replicates, assesses, and extends N&W, and constructs a transparency appendix in accordance with the “Active Citation” standard to encourage independent engagement and assessment of the arguments made here. Part II provides an overview of N&W’s argument. Part III discusses alternative approaches/critiques of N&W, and argues that the most relevant alternative accounts emphasize the organizational preferences of Parliamentary interests following the Glorious Revolution over the constitutional constraints that play a more central role in N&W. Part IV details the results of this replication, discusses the potential problems of relying exclusively on secondary source evidence (as N&W do), and concludes that N&W correctly interpreted the evidence they extract. However, I find that no more than a couple of citations clearly speak to the causal mechanism underlying N&W’s constitutional constraints thesis. Part V uncovers further evidence, exclusively drawn from the very same secondary sources, to adjudicate between N&W’s hypothesis and the organizational preferences hypothesis introduced in Part III. I find that N&W’s sources more strongly support the organizational preferences theory, and thus conclude that while N&W do not commit errors of misinterpretation, they do engage in sins of omission. Finally, Part VI concludes.

Nation and Nature Preservation in France and England in the Nineteenth Century

Abstract The article proposes to compare the ways nature in France and England was considered, in the nineteenth century, as a patrimoine to be preserved. It analyses first how the disruption of the industrial revolution in England and the discovery of the English landscapes led to a vision of what was considered as the most typical English landscape. In France, on the contrary, no such singular landscape emerged: the article underlines that, following the French revolution, what mattered in this country was history, not nature - even natural places were protected for their historical associations. The consequences of these two different approaches can be seen in the founding battles for nature preservation in France and England: respectively those of Fontainebleau Forest and Thirlmere. While the latter strengthened the environmental movement in England, the preservation of Fontainebleau forest did not have such an impact on the national scale. The article concludes by trying to understand how, from these very different premises, French and English preservation movements related to a nature-patrimoine, finally converged at the beginning of the twentieth century.

The role of social innovation in criminal justice reform and the risk posed by proposed reforms in England and Wales

The UK government has called for a rehabilitation revolution in England and Wales and put its faith in market testing. It hopes this will lead to greater innovation, resulting in reductions in re-offending while also driving down costs. However, many of the most innovative developments in criminal justice over recent decades have come through social innovation. Examples include restorative justice and justice reinvestment. In this article we argue that while social innovation will respond to some extent to conventional economic policy levers such as market testing, de-regulation and the intelligent use of public sector purchasing power it is not simply an extension of the neo-liberal model into the social realm. Social innovation, based on solidarity and reciprocity, is an alternative to the logic of the neo-liberal paradigm. In policy terms, the promotion of social innovation will need to take account of the interplay between government policy, social and cultural norms and individual and social capacity. Current proposals for reforming the criminal justice system may not leave sufficient scope to develop the conditions for effective social innovation.

The Voyage Account, the Royal Society and Textual Production, 1687–1707

The decade following the Glorious Revolution in England saw the publication of many accounts of voyages both to the New World and the Levant. Key figures behind these publications were botanists Hans Sloane, John Ray and Tancred Robinson, who collaborated on the publication of two texts – A Collection of Curious Voyages and Travels, which collated journeys to the Levant, and An Account of Several Late Voyages, which featured accounts of voyages to the Arctic Circle as well as the Pacific. This article argues that the publication of voyage accounts in the late-seventeenth century was part of a broader scientific endeavour. They provided both entertainment, and raw material for scientific and religious debate. By examining the publication and reception history of key accounts of voyages and travel, this article shows how the ‘republic of letters’ became a textual empire at the end of the seventeenth century.

The return of anti-Eurocentrism?

Samir Amin Global History: A View from the South, Pambazuka Press, Nairobi, Kenya, 2011; 200 pp: 9781906387969, 14.99 [pounds sterling] (pbk) This book is a collection of several previously published pieces on global history by Samir Amin. The breadth and depth of this study is considerable, and is testimony to the author's status as an internationally leading progressive scholar of the left. In only 190 pages of text, Amin covers global history from about 500 BC to the present day, including the various parts of the world and how they have been related to each other in different ways over time. The book highlights the author's independent contribution to Marxist historical sociology, and presents a stinging attack on Eurocentric accounts of history. Samir Amin is regularly mentioned alongside three other progressive, left academic intellectuals: Immanuel Wallerstein, Andre Gunder Frank, and Giovanni Arrighi. Indeed, he collaborated closely with them, especially in the 1970s, when they were known in academia as the 'Gang of Four'. Nevertheless, this book makes clear that Samir Amin has adopted independent positions on a number of key issues, which differentiate him from the others. I will focus on three key differences here. First, he highlights the significance of the Industrial Revolution in England, identified as the advanced form of capitalism since 1800. While Immanuel Wallerstein dates capitalism back to the long 16th century, beginning in around 1450 (e.g. Wallerstein 1974: 399), and Giovanni Arrighi downplays the Industrial Revolution completely in Britain's rise to international dominance (Arrighi 1994: 209-10), Samir Amin captures its systemic importance. 'The capitalist system only reached its advanced form with the establishment of the mechanised factory in the 19th century (modern industry), a base which was essential to the deployment of the law of value specific to the capitalist mode of production' (p. 71). Second, Amin's definition of capitalism is equally different from Wallerstein's and Arrighi's market-based definitions. For Amin, 'the development of historical capitalism is based on the private appropriation of agrarian land, the submission of agricultural production to the requirements of the market and, on this basis, the continuing and accelerating expulsion of the peasant population for the benefit of a small number of capitalist farmers' (pp. 172-3). In other words, when assessing the transition to capitalism in Europe, there is an emphasis on enclosures in England and the constitution of private property, i.e. the way the production process is organised. Third, in his broad historical sweep, Amin identifies several parallel tributary systems from 500 BC to about 1500 AD, based on direct, politically enforced surplus extraction from peasant activity, and dominated by ideological authority and the existence of a universal ideology. He highlights India, China and the Islamic Orient as the three major core tributary systems plus several less significant tributary systems in the periphery including, for example, Europe (85). Nevertheless, in contrast to Andre Gunder Frank (e.g. Frank and Gills 1993), who thinks in terms of an integrated world system reaching back up to 5,000 years, Amin does not conclude that the trading links between these different tributary systems implied that they were part of one and the same overall system. In this sense, 'the capitalist mode of production represents a qualitative rupture with systems that preceded it' (p. 123). Moreover, this book is significant in its criticism of Eurocentrism (see also Hobson 2012). Amin employs the concept of the 'tributary system' as a tool for a non-European interpretation of universal history (p. 137). In his analysis of the period between 500 BC and 1500 AD, he suggests that Europe was little more than a barbarous and backward periphery lagging behind major tributary systems such as India, China and the Islamic Orient and their scientific, intellectual and general civilisational achievements. …

The priority of piracy

With the recent growth of historians’ and anthropologists’ interest in intellectual property, what is at stake in writing a general history of piracy? Adrian Johns argues in this remarkable book that in the most crucial senses it is piracy that has been the fundamental concept all along, with intellectual property a specific historical manifestation and consequence of the broader idea: ‘‘To assume that piracy merely derives from legal doctrine is to get the history—and therefore the politics, and much else besides—back to front’’ (6). What does this mean in practice? First, the historiography: While historical accounts of intellectual property have been dominated by court cases, the history of piracy is primarily cultural; notions and claims about piracy may exist independently of legal doctrines, but not vice versa. Second, the history: Conceptions of piracy relating to intellectual productions predate legal regimes of intellectual property. This is true both in the longue duree (this history begins in earnest during the seventeenth century, well before anything like intellectual property existed in any specific sense) and in the specific episodes that comprise the narrative (medical patenting arises as a response to counterfeiting, the same goes for early twentieth-century sheet music legislation, and so on). Absent any legal definitions, however, it becomes tricky to define what gets to count as piracy. Johns thus relies explicitly on actors’ terms: The narrative begins when people began accusing one another of being pirates (and, as Johns points out, ascriptions of piracy tend to be made in both directions in such controversies). The term’s use in relevant contexts became common after the Glorious Revolution in England, when the Press Act of 1662 had lapsed, precisely when there was no legal basis for property in literary works. This is crucial to what lies ahead: time and again, accusations of piracy arise when conflicts over right conduct arise between communities with differing traditions and customs. This still leaves the

The Empire of Credit: The Financial Revolution in Britain, Ireland, and America, 1688–1815

Book Review| March 01 2013 The Empire of Credit: The Financial Revolution in Britain, Ireland, and America, 1688–1815 The Empire of Credit: The Financial Revolution in Britain, Ireland, and America, 1688–1815. Edited by Carey, Daniel; Finlay, Christopher J.. Dublin: Irish Academic Press, 2011. xviii; 302 pp. Cloth€35.00. Richard A. Kleer Richard A. Kleer Search for other works by this author on: This Site Google History of Political Economy (2013) 45 (1): 182–183. https://doi.org/10.1215/00182702-1965249 Cite Icon Cite Share Icon Share Facebook Twitter LinkedIn MailTo Permissions Search Site Citation Richard A. Kleer; The Empire of Credit: The Financial Revolution in Britain, Ireland, and America, 1688–1815. History of Political Economy 1 March 2013; 45 (1): 182–183. doi: https://doi.org/10.1215/00182702-1965249 Download citation file: Zotero Reference Manager EasyBib Bookends Mendeley Papers EndNote RefWorks BibTex toolbar search Search Dropdown Menu toolbar search search input Search input auto suggest filter your search Books & JournalsAll JournalsHistory of Political Economy Search Advanced Search The text of this article is only available as a PDF. Copyright 2013 by Duke University Press2013 Article PDF first page preview Close Modal You do not currently have access to this content.

Review of the Empire of Credit: The Financial Revolution in Britain, Ireland, and America, 1688-1715

This paper reviews a collection of essays relating to various aspects of the financial revolution in Britain starting with the creation of the Bank of England in the late seventeenth century and ending with the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, a period in which Britain unexpectedly became the dominant power in Europe and acquired an international empire. The volume under review explores some of the historical and intellectual connections between the financial revolution and Britain’s military ascendancy.

Gilbert Burnet: An Ecclesiastical Historian and the Invention of the English Restoration Era

On the eve of the 1689 Revolution in England, Gilbert Burnet was best known as an ecclesiastical historian. Although he had had a noteworthy career as a Whigleaning cleric, who had gone into exile at the start of James II’s reign and had entered the household of William of Orange in the Hague, Burnet’s reputation had been based on his magisterial History of the Reformation. This had appeared in its first two volumes in 1678 and 1683, and had rapidly become the standard work on the religious changes of the Tudor age. Soon after the Revolution, Burnet also became notable as the chief propagandist of the new regime. He produced a steady stream of works justifying William’s usurpation of James’s throne, and played a major part in organizing such pro-Orange events as the fast days marking William’s war with Louis XIV. This essay explores a key intersection of these two roles. It suggests that Burnet’s explicitly pro-Williamite understanding of church history gave rise to a new division of the past, and effectively invented the Restoration era as a distinct period of British history, running from 1660 to 1689.