Model Of Rett Syndrome Research Articles

Functional recovery with recombinant human IGF1 treatment in a mouse model of Rett Syndrome.

Rett Syndrome is a neurodevelopmental disorder that arises from mutations in the X-linked gene methyl-CpG binding protein 2 (MeCP2). MeCP2 has a large number of targets and a wide range of functions, suggesting the hypothesis that functional signaling mechanisms upstream of synaptic and circuit maturation may contribute to our understanding of the disorder and provide insight into potential treatment. Here, we show that insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF1) levels are reduced in young male Mecp2-null (Mecp2(-/y)) mice, and systemic treatment with recombinant human IGF1 (rhIGF1) improves lifespan, locomotor activity, heart rate, respiration patterns, and social and anxiety behavior. Furthermore, Mecp2-null mice treated with rhIGF1 show increased synaptic and activated signaling pathway proteins, enhanced cortical excitatory synaptic transmission, and restored dendritic spine densities. IGF1 levels are also reduced in older, fully symptomatic heterozygous (Mecp2(-/+)) female mice, and short-term treatment with rhIGF1 in these animals improves respiratory patterns, reduces anxiety levels, and increases exploratory behavior. In addition, rhIGF1 treatment normalizes abnormally prolonged plasticity in visual cortex circuits of adult Mecp2(-/+) female mice. Our results provide characterization of the phenotypic development of Rett Syndrome in a mouse model at the molecular, circuit, and organismal levels and demonstrate a mechanism-based therapeutic role for rhIGF1 in treating Rett Syndrome.

Effect of Sarizotan, a 5-HT1a and D2-like receptor agonist, on respiration in three mouse models of Rett syndrome.

Disturbances in respiration are common and debilitating features of Rett syndrome (RTT). A previous study showed that the 5-HT1a receptor agonist (R)-(+)-8-hydroxy-dipropyl-2-aminotetralin hydrobromide (8-OH-DPAT) significantly reduced the incidence of apnea and the irregular breathing pattern in a mouse model of the disorder. 8-OH-DPAT, however, is not available for clinical practice. Sarizotan, a full 5-HT1a agonist and a dopamine D2-like agonist/partial agonist, has been used in clinical trials for the treatment of l-dopa-induced dyskinesia. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of sarizotan on respiration and locomotion in mouse models of RTT. Studies were performed in Bird and Jaenisch strains of methyl-CpG-binding protein 2--deficient heterozygous female and Jaenisch strain Mecp2 null male mice and in knock-in heterozygous female mice of a common nonsense mutation (R168X). Respiratory pattern was determined with body plethysmography, and locomotion was determined with open-field recording. Sarizotan or vehicle was administered 20 minutes before a 30-minute recording of respiratory pattern or motor behavior. In separate studies, a crossover design was used to administer the drug for 7 and for 14 days. Sarizotan reduced the incidence of apnea in all three RTT mouse models to approximately 15% of their pretreatment levels. The irregular breathing pattern was corrected to that of wild-type littermates. When administered for 7 or 14 days, apnea decreased to 25 to 33% of the incidence seen with vehicle. This study indicates that the clinically approved drug sarizotan is an effective treatment for respiratory disorders in mouse models of RTT.

Oxidative brain damage in Mecp2-mutant murine models of Rett syndrome

Rett syndrome (RTT) is a rare neurodevelopmental disorder affecting almost exclusively females, caused in the overwhelming majority of the cases by loss-of-function mutations in the gene encoding methyl-CpG binding protein 2 (MECP2). High circulating levels of oxidative stress (OS) markers in patients suggest the involvement of OS in the RTT pathogenesis. To investigate the occurrence of oxidative brain damage in Mecp2 mutant mouse models, several OS markers were evaluated in whole brains of Mecp2-null (pre-symptomatic, symptomatic, and rescued) and Mecp2-308 mutated (pre-symptomatic and symptomatic) mice, and compared to those of wild type littermates. Selected OS markers included non-protein-bound iron, isoprostanes (F2-isoprostanes, F4-neuroprostanes, F2-dihomo-isoprostanes) and 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal protein adducts. Our findings indicate that oxidative brain damage 1) occurs in both Mecp2-null (both −/y and stop/y) and Mecp2-308 (both 308/y males and 308/+ females) mouse models of RTT; 2) precedes the onset of symptoms in both Mecp2-null and Mecp2-308 models; and 3) is rescued by Mecp2 brain specific gene reactivation. Our data provide direct evidence of the link between Mecp2 deficiency, oxidative stress and RTT pathology, as demonstrated by the rescue of the brain oxidative homeostasis following brain-specifically Mecp2-reactivated mice. The present study indicates that oxidative brain damage is a previously unrecognized hallmark feature of murine RTT, and suggests that Mecp2 is involved in the protection of the brain from oxidative stress.

LSD1 Neurospecific Alternative Splicing Controls Neuronal Excitability in Mouse Models of Epilepsy.

Alternative splicing in the brain is dynamic and instrumental to adaptive changes in response to stimuli. Lysine-specific demethylase 1 (LSD1/KDM1A) is a ubiquitously expressed histone H3Lys4 demethylase that acts as a transcriptional co-repressor in complex with its molecular partners CoREST and HDAC1/2. In mammalian brain, alternative splicing of LSD1 mini-exon E8a gives rise to neuroLSD1, a neurospecific isoform that, upon phosphorylation, acts as a dominant-negative causing disassembly of the co-repressor complex and de-repression of target genes. Here we show that the LSD1/neuroLSD1 ratio changes in response to neuronal activation and such effect is mediated by neurospecific splicing factors NOVA1 and nSR100/SRRM4 together with a novel cis-silencer. Indeed, we found that, in response to epileptogenic stimuli, downregulation of NOVA1 reduces exon E8a splicing and expression of neuroLSD1. Using behavioral and EEG analyses we observed that neuroLSD1-specific null mice are hypoexcitable and display decreased seizure susceptibility. Conversely, in a mouse model of Rett syndrome characterized by hyperexcitability, we measured higher levels of NOVA1 protein and upregulation of neuroLSD1. In conclusion, we propose that, in the brain, correct ratio between LSD1 and neuroLSD1 contributes to excitability and, when altered, could represent a pathogenic event associated with neurological disorders involving altered E/I.

Reduced synaptic activity in neuronal networks derived from embryonic stem cells of murine Rett syndrome model.

Neurodevelopmental diseases such as the Rett syndrome (RTT) have received renewed attention, since the mechanisms involved may underlie a broad range of neuropsychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia and autism. In vertebrates early stages in the functional development of neurons and neuronal networks are difficult to study. Embryonic stem cell-derived neurons provide an easily accessible tool to investigate neuronal differentiation and early network formation. We used in vitro cultures of neurons derived from murine embryonic stem cells missing the methyl-CpG-binding protein 2 (MECP2) gene (MeCP2-/y) and from wild type cells of the corresponding background. Cultures were assessed using whole-cell patch-clamp electrophysiology and immunofluorescence. We studied the functional maturation of developing neurons and the activity of the synaptic connections they formed. Neurons exhibited minor differences in the developmental patterns for their intrinsic parameters, such as resting membrane potential and excitability; with the MeCP2-/y cells showing a slightly accelerated development, with shorter action potential half-widths at early stages. There was no difference in the early phase of synapse development, but as the cultures matured, significant deficits became apparent, particularly for inhibitory synaptic activity. MeCP2-/y embryonic stem cell-derived neuronal cultures show clear developmental deficits that match phenotypes observed in slice preparations and thus provide a compelling tool to further investigate the mechanisms behind RTT pathophysiology.

An increase in MECP2 dosage impairs neural tube formation

Epigenetic mechanisms are fundamental for shaping the activity of the central nervous system (CNS). Methyl-CpG binding protein 2 (MECP2) acts as a bridge between methylated DNA and transcriptional effectors responsible for differentiation programs in neurons. The importance of MECP2 dosage in CNS is evident in Rett Syndrome and MECP2 duplication syndrome, which are neurodevelopmental diseases caused by loss-of-function mutations or duplication of the MECP2 gene, respectively. Although many studies have been performed on Rett syndrome models, little is known about the effects of an increase in MECP2 dosage. Herein, we demonstrate that MECP2 overexpression affects neural tube formation, leading to a decrease in neuroblast proliferation in the neural tube ventricular zone. Furthermore, an increase in MECP2 dose provokes premature differentiation of neural precursors accompanied by greater cell death, resulting in a loss of neuronal populations. Overall, our data indicate that correct MECP2 expression levels are required for proper nervous system development.

Mitochondrial dysfunction in the skeletal muscle of a mouse model of Rett syndrome (RTT): Implications for the disease phenotype

Rett syndrome (RTT) is a severe neurodevelopmental disorder, predominantly caused by mutations in the X-linked Methyl-CpG-binding protein 2 (MECP2) gene. Patients present with numerous functional deficits including intellectual disability and abnormalities of movement. Clinical and biochemical features may overlap with those seen in patients with primary mitochondrial respiratory chain disorders. In the late stages of the disorder, patients suffer from motor deterioration and usually require assisted mobility. Using a mouse model of RTT (Mecp2tm1Tam), we studied the mitochondrial function in the hind-limb skeletal muscle of these mice. We identified a reduction in cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (MTCO1) at both the transcript and protein level, in accordance with our previous findings in RTT patient brain studies. Mitochondrial respiratory chain (MRC) enzyme activity of complexes II+III (COII+III) and complex IV (COIV), and glutathione (GSH) levels were significantly reduced in symptomatic mice, but not in the pre-symptomatic mice. Our findings suggest that mitochondrial abnormalities in the skeletal muscle may contribute to the progressive deterioration in mobility in RTT through the accumulation of free radicals, as evidenced by the decrease in reduced glutathione (GSH). We hypothesise that a diminution in GSH leads to an accumulation of free radicals and an increase in oxidative stress. This may impact on respiratory chain function and contribute in part to the progressive neurological and motor deterioration seen in the Mecp2-mutant mouse. Treatment strategies aimed at restoring cellular GSH levels may prove to be a novel target area to consider in future approaches to RTT therapies.

Deep-brain magnetic stimulation promotes adult hippocampal neurogenesis and alleviates stress-related behaviors in mouse models for neuropsychiatric disorders

BackgroundRepetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (rTMS)/ Deep-brain Magnetic Stimulation (DMS) is an effective therapy for various neuropsychiatric disorders including major depression disorder. The molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying the impacts of rTMS/DMS on the brain are not yet fully understood.ResultsHere we studied the effects of deep-brain magnetic stimulation to brain on the molecular and cellular level. We examined the adult hippocampal neurogenesis and hippocampal synaptic plasticity of rodent under stress conditions with deep-brain magnetic stimulation treatment. We found that DMS promotes adult hippocampal neurogenesis significantly and facilitates the development of adult new-born neurons. Remarkably, DMS exerts anti-depression effects in the learned helplessness mouse model and rescues hippocampal long-term plasticity impaired by restraint stress in rats. Moreover, DMS alleviates the stress response in a mouse model for Rett syndrome and prolongs the life span of these animals dramatically.ConclusionsDeep-brain magnetic stimulation greatly facilitates adult hippocampal neurogenesis and maturation, also alleviates depression and stress-related responses in animal models.

The free radical scavenger Trolox dampens neuronal hyperexcitability, reinstates synaptic plasticity, and improves hypoxia tolerance in a mouse model of Rett syndrome

Rett syndrome (RS) causes severe cognitive impairment, loss of speech, epilepsy, and breathing disturbances with intermittent hypoxia. Also mitochondria are affected; a subunit of respiratory complex III is dysregulated, the inner mitochondrial membrane is leaking protons, and brain ATP levels seem reduced. Our recent assessment of mitochondrial function in MeCP2 (methyl-CpG-binding protein 2)-deficient mouse (Mecp2-/y) hippocampus confirmed early metabolic alterations, an increased oxidative burden, and a more vulnerable cellular redox balance. As these changes may contribute to the manifestation of symptoms and disease progression, we now evaluated whether free radical scavengers are capable of improving neuronal and mitochondrial function in RS. Acute hippocampal slices of adult mice were incubated with the vitamin E derivative Trolox for 3–5 h. In Mecp2-/y slices this treatment dampened neuronal hyperexcitability, improved synaptic short-term plasticity, and fully restored synaptic long-term potentiation (LTP). Furthermore, Trolox specifically attenuated the increased hypoxia susceptibility of Mecp2-/y slices. Also, the anticonvulsive effects of Trolox were assessed, but the severity of 4-aminopyridine provoked seizure-like discharges was not significantly affected. Adverse side effects of Trolox on mitochondria can be excluded, but clear indications for an improvement of mitochondrial function were not found. Since several ion-channels and neurotransmitter receptors are redox modulated, the mitochondrial alterations and the associated oxidative burden may contribute to the neuronal dysfunction in RS. We confirmed in Mecp2-/y hippocampus that Trolox dampens neuronal hyperexcitability, reinstates synaptic plasticity, and improves the hypoxia tolerance. Therefore, radical scavengers are promising compounds for the treatment of neuronal dysfunction in RS and deserve further detailed evaluation.

A selective 5-HT1areceptor agonist improves respiration in a mouse model of Rett syndrome

Rett syndrome is a neurological disorder caused by loss of function mutations in the gene that encodes the DNA binding protein methyl-CpG-binding protein 2 (Mecp2). A prominent feature of the syndrome is disturbances in respiration characterized by frequent apnea and an irregular interbreath cycle. 8-Hydroxy-2-dipropylaminotetralin has been shown to positively modulate these disturbances (Abdala AP, Dutschmann M, Bissonnette JM, Paton JF, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 107: 18208-18213, 2010), but the mode of action is not understood. Here we show that the selective 5-HT1a biased agonist 3-chloro-4-fluorophenyl-(4-fluoro-4-{[(5-methylpyrimidin-2-ylmethyl)-amino]-methyl}-piperidin-1-yl)-methanone (F15599) decreases apnea and corrects irregularity in both heterozygous Mecp2-deficient female and in Mecp2 null male mice. In whole cell voltage-clamp recordings from dorsal raphe neurons, F15599 potently induced an outward current, which was blocked by barium, reversed at the potassium equilibrium potential, and was antagonized by the 5-HT1a antagonist WAY100135. This is consistent with somatodendritic 5-HT1a receptor-mediated activation of G protein-coupled inwardly rectifying potassium channels (GIRK). In contrast, F15599 did not activate 5-HT1b/d receptors that mediate inhibition of glutamate release from terminals in the nucleus accumbens by a presynaptic mechanism. Thus F15599 activated somatodendritic 5-HT1a autoreceptors, but not axonal 5-HT1b/d receptors. In unanesthetized Mecp2-deficient heterozygous female mice, F15599 reduced apnea in a dose-dependent manner with maximal effect of 74.5 ± 6.9% at 0.1 mg/kg and improved breath irrregularity. Similarly, in Mecp2 null male mice, apnea was reduced by 62 ± 6.6% at 0.25 mg/kg, and breathing became regular. The results indicate respiration is improved with a 5-HT1a agonist that activates GIRK channels without affecting neurotransmitter release.

MeCP2-mediated alterations of striatal features accompany psychomotor deficits in a mouse model of Rett syndrome

Rett Syndrome (RTT) is a neurodevelopmental disorder caused by mutations in the methyl-CpG-binding protein 2 (MECP2) gene. Affected individuals develop motor deficits including stereotypic hand movements, impaired motor learning and difficulties with movement. To understand the neural mechanisms of motor deficits in RTT, we characterized the molecular and cellular phenotypes in the striatum, the major input nucleus of the basal ganglia that controls psychomotor function, in mice carrying a null allele of Mecp2. These mice showed significant hypoactivity associated with impaired motor coordination and motor skill learning. We found that dopamine content was significantly reduced in the striatum of Mecp2 null mice. Reduced dopamine was accompanied by down-regulation of tyrosine hydroxylase and up-regulation of dopamine D2 receptors, particularly in the rostral striatum. We also observed that loss of MeCP2 induced compartment-specific alterations in the striatum, including reduced expression of μ-opioid receptors in the striosomes and increased number of calbindin-positive neurons in the striatal matrix. The total number of parvalbumin-positive interneurons and their dendritic arborization were also significantly increased in the striatum of Mecp2 null mice. Together, our findings support that MeCP2 regulates a unique set of genes critical for modulating motor output of the striatum, and that aberrant structure and function of the striatum due to MeCP2 deficiency may underlie the motor deficits in RTT.

Systemic Delivery of MeCP2 Rescues Behavioral and Cellular Deficits in Female Mouse Models of Rett Syndrome

De novo mutations in the X-linked gene encoding the transcription factor methyl-CpG binding protein 2 (MECP2) are the most frequent cause of the neurological disorder Rett syndrome (RTT). Hemizygous males usually die of neonatal encephalopathy. Heterozygous females survive into adulthood but exhibit severe symptoms including microcephaly, loss of purposeful hand motions and speech, and motor abnormalities, which appear after a period of apparently normal development. Most studies have focused on male mouse models because of the shorter latency to and severity in symptoms, yet how well these mice mimic the disease in affected females is not clear. Very few therapeutic treatments have been proposed for females, the more gender-appropriate model. Here, we show that self-complementary AAV9, bearing MeCP2 cDNA under control of a fragment of its own promoter (scAAV9/MeCP2), is capable of significantly stabilizing or reversing symptoms when administered systemically into female RTT mice. To our knowledge, this is the first potential gene therapy for females afflicted with RTT.

Vascular Dysfunction in a Mouse Model of Rett Syndrome and Effects of Curcumin Treatment

Mutations in the coding sequence of the X-linked gene MeCP2 (Methyl CpG–binding protein) are present in around 80% of patients with Rett Syndrome, a common cause of intellectual disability in female and to date without any effective pharmacological treatment. A relevant, and so far unexplored feature of RTT patients, is a marked reduction in peripheral circulation. To investigate the relationship between loss of MeCP2 and this clinical aspect, we used the MeCP2 null mouse model B6.129SF1-MeCP2tm1Jae for functional and pharmacological studies. Functional experiments were performed on isolated resistance mesenteric vessels, mounted on a pressurized myograph. Vessels from female MeCP2+/− mice show a reduced endothelium-dependent relaxation, due to a reduced Nitric Oxide (NO) availability secondary to an increased Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) generation. Such functional aspects are associated with an intravascular increase in superoxide anion production, and a decreased vascular eNOS expression. These alterations are reversed by curcumin administration (5% (w/w) dietary curcumin for 21 days), which restores endothelial NO availability, decreases intravascular ROS production and normalizes vascular eNOS gene expression. In conclusion our findings highlight alterations in the vascular/endothelial system in the absence of a correct function of MeCP2, and uncover related cellular/molecular mechanisms that are rescued by an anti-oxidant treatment.

Characterization of seizure-like events recorded in vivo in a mouse model of Rett syndrome

Rett syndrome is a neurodevelopmental disorder caused by mutations in the X-linked gene encoding methyl-CpG-binding protein 2 (MECP2). Spontaneous recurrent discharge episodes are displayed in Rett-related seizures as in other types of epilepsies. The aim of this paper is to investigate the seizure-like event (SLE) and inter-SLE states in a female MeCP2-deficient mouse model of Rett syndrome and compare them to those found in other spontaneous recurrent epilepsy models. The study was performed on a small population of female MeCP2-deficient mice using telemetric local field potential (LFP) recordings over a 24 h period. Durations of SLEs and inter-SLEs were extracted using a rule-based automated SLE detection system for both daytime and nighttime, as well as high and low power levels of the delta frequency range (0.5–4 Hz) of the recorded LFPs. The results suggest SLE occurrences are not influenced by circadian rhythms, but had a significantly greater association with delta power. Investigating inter-SLE and SLE states by fitting duration histograms to the gamma distribution showed that SLE initiation and termination were associated with random and deterministic mechanisms, respectively. These findings when compared to reported studies on epilepsy suggest that Rett-related seizures share many similarities with absence epilepsy.

Insulin-like growth factor-1 rescues synaptic and motor deficits in a mouse model of autism and developmental delay

BackgroundHaploinsufficiency of SHANK3, due to either hemizygous gene deletion (termed 22q13 deletion syndrome or Phelan-McDermid syndrome) or to gene mutation, accounts for about 0.5% of the cases of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and/or developmental delay, and there is evidence for a wider role for SHANK3 and glutamate signaling abnormalities in ASD and related conditions. Therapeutic approaches that reverse deficits in SHANK3-haploinsufficiency may therefore be broadly beneficial in ASD and in developmental delay.FindingsWe observed that daily intraperitoneal injections of human insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) over a 2-week period reversed deficits in hippocampal α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA) signaling, long-term potentiation (LTP), and motor performance that we had previously reported in Shank3-deficient mice. Positive effects were observed with an IGF-1 peptide derivative as well.ConclusionsWe observed significant beneficial effects of IGF-1 in a mouse model of ASD and of developmental delay. Studies in mouse and human neuronal models of Rett syndrome also show benefits with IGF-1, raising the possibility that this compound may have benefits broadly in ASD and related conditions, even with differing molecular etiology. Given the extensive safety data for IGF-1 in children with short stature due to primary IGF-1 deficiency, IGF-1 is an attractive candidate for controlled clinical trials in SHANK3-deficiency and in ASD.

Increasing brain serotonin corrects CO2 chemosensitivity in methyl‐CpG‐binding protein 2 (Mecp2)‐deficient mice

Mice deficient in the transcription factor methyl-CpG-binding protein 2 (Mecp2), a mouse model of Rett syndrome, display reduced CO2 chemosensitivity, which may contribute to their breathing abnormalities. In addition, patients with Rett syndrome and male mice that are null for Mecp2 show reduced levels of brain serotonin (5-HT). Serotonin is known to play a role in central chemosensitivity, and we hypothesized that increasing the availability of 5-HT in this mouse model would improve their respiratory response to CO2. Here we determined the apnoeic threshold in heterozygous Mecp2-deficient female mice and examined the effects of blocking 5-HT reuptake on the CO2 response in Mecp2-null male mice. Studies were performed in B6.129P2(C)-Mecp2(τm1.1Bird) null males and heterozygous females. In an in situ preparation, seven of eight Mecp2-deficient heterozygous females showed arrest of phrenic nerve activity when arterial CO2 was lowered to 3%, whereas the wild-types maintained phrenic nerve amplitude at 53 ± 3% of maximal. In vivo plethysmography studies were used to determine CO2 chemosensitivity in null males. These mice were exposed sequentially to 1, 3 and 5% CO2. The percentage increase in minute ventilation in response to increased inspired CO2 was less in Mecp2(-/y) than in Mecp2(+/y) mice. Pretreatment with citalopram, a selective 5-HT reuptake inhibitor (2.5 mg kg(-1) i.p.), 40 min prior to CO2 exposure, in Mecp2(-/y) mice resulted in an improvement in CO2 chemosensitivity to wild-type levels. These results suggest that decreased 5-HT in Mecp2-deficient mice reduces CO2 chemosensitivity, and restoring 5-HT levels can reverse this effect.

Decreased Hering-Breuer input-output entrainment in a mouse model of Rett syndrome.

Rett syndrome, a severe X-linked neurodevelopmental disorder caused by mutations in the gene encoding methyl-CpG-binding protein 2 (Mecp2), is associated with a highly irregular respiratory pattern including severe upper-airway dysfunction. Recent work suggests that hyperexcitability of the Hering–Breuer reflex (HBR) pathway contributes to respiratory dysrhythmia in Mecp2 mutant mice. To assess how enhanced HBR input impacts respiratory entrainment by sensory afferents in closed-loop in vivo-like conditions, we investigated the input (vagal stimulus trains) – output (phrenic bursting) entrainment via the HBR in wild-type and MeCP2-deficient mice. Using the in situ perfused brainstem preparation, which maintains an intact pontomedullary axis capable of generating an in vivo-like respiratory rhythm in the absence of the HBR, we mimicked the HBR feedback input by stimulating the vagus nerve (at threshold current, 0.5 ms pulse duration, 75 Hz pulse frequency, 100 ms train duration) at an inter-burst frequency matching that of the intrinsic oscillation of the inspiratory motor output of each preparation. Using this approach, we observed significant input-output entrainment in wild-type mice as measured by the maximum of the cross-correlation function, the peak of the instantaneous relative phase distribution, and the mutual information of the instantaneous phases. This entrainment was associated with a reduction in inspiratory duration during feedback stimulation. In contrast, the strength of input-output entrainment was significantly weaker in Mecp2−/+ mice. However, Mecp2−/+ mice also had a reduced inspiratory duration during stimulation, indicating that reflex behavior in the HBR pathway was intact. Together, these observations suggest that the respiratory network compensates for enhanced sensitivity of HBR inputs by reducing HBR input-output entrainment.

Correcting deregulated Fxyd1 expression ameliorates a behavioral impairment in a mouse model of Rett syndrome

Rett syndrome (RTT) is an X-linked neurodevelopmental disorder caused by mutations in the MECP2. Several genes have been shown to be MECP2 targets. We previously identified FXYD1 (encoding phospholemman; a protein containing the motif phenylalanine-X-tyrosine-aspartate), a gene encoding a transmembrane modulator of the Na, K-ATPase (NKA) enzyme, as one of them. In the absence of MECP2, FXYD1 expression is increased in the frontal cortex (FC) of both RTT patients and Mecp2Bird null mice. Here, we show that Fxyd1 mRNA levels are also increased in the FC and hippocampus (HC) of male mice carrying a truncating mutation of the Mecp2 gene (Mecp2308). To test the hypothesis that some of the behavioral phenotypes seen in these Mecp2 mutants could be ameliorated by genetically preventing the Fxyd1 response to MECP2 deficiency, we crossed Fxyd1 null male mice with Mecp2308 heterozygous females and behaviorally tested the adult male offspring. Mecp2308 mice had impaired HC-dependent novel location recognition, and this impairment was rescued by deletion of both Fxyd1 alleles. No other behavioral or sensorimotor impairments were rescued. These results indicate that reducing FXYD1 levels improves a specific cognitive impairment in MECP2-deficient mice.

Reduced seizure threshold and altered network oscillatory properties in a mouse model of Rett syndrome

Rett syndrome (RTT) is a disorder with a pronounced neurological phenotype and is caused mainly by mutations in the X-linked gene MECP2. A common feature of RTT is an abnormal electroencephalography and a propensity for seizures. In the current study we aimed to assess brain network excitability and seizure propensity in a mouse model of RTT. Mice in which Mecp2 expression was silenced (Mecp2stop/y) showed a higher seizure score (mean=6±0.8 compared to 4±0.2 in wild-type [WT]) and more rapid seizure onset (median onset=10min in Mecp2stop/y and 32min in WT) when challenged with the convulsant drug kainic acid (25mg/kg). Hippocampal slices from Mecp2stop/y brain displayed no spontaneous field potential activities under control conditions but showed higher power gamma frequency field potential oscillations compared to WT in response to kainic acid (400nM) in vitro. Brain slices challenged with the GABAA-receptor antagonist bicuculline (0.1–10μM) and the potassium channel blocker 4-aminopyridine (1–50μM) also revealed differences between genotypes with hippocampal circuits from Mecp2stop/y mouse slices showing enhanced epileptiform burst duration and frequency. In contrast to these network level findings, single cell analysis of pyramidal cells by whole-cell patch clamp recording revealed no detectable differences in synaptic or biophysical properties between methyl-CpG-binding protein 2 (MeCP2)-containing and MeCP2-deficient neurons. These data support the proposal that loss of MeCP2 alters network level excitability in the brain to promote epileptogenesis.

Acetyl-L-Carnitine Improves Behavior and Dendritic Morphology in a Mouse Model of Rett Syndrome

Rett syndrome (RTT) is a devastating neurodevelopmental disorder affecting 1 in 10,000 girls. Approximately 90% of cases are caused by spontaneous mutations in the X-linked gene encoding methyl-CpG-binding protein 2 (MeCP2). Girls with RTT suffer from severe motor, respiratory, cognitive and social abnomalities attributed to early deficits in synaptic connectivity which manifest in the adult as a myriad of physiological and anatomical abnormalities including, but not limited to, dimished dendritic complexity. Supplementation with acetyl-L-carnitine (ALC), an acetyl group donor, ameliorates motor and cognitive deficits in other disease models through a variety of mechanisms including altering patterns of histone acetylation resulting in changes in gene expression, and stimulating biosynthetic pathways such as acetylcholine. We hypothesized ALC treatment during critical periods in cortical development would promote normal synaptic maturation, and continuing treatment would improve behavioral deficits in the Mecp21lox mouse model of RTT. In this study, wildtype and Mecp21lox mutant mice received daily injections of ALC from birth until death (postnatal day 47). General health, motor, respiratory, and cognitive functions were assessed at several time points during symptom progression. ALC improved weight gain, grip strength, activity levels, prevented metabolic abnormalities and modestly improved cognitive function in Mecp2 null mice early in the course of treatment, but did not significantly improve motor or cognitive functions assessed later in life. ALC treatment from birth was associated with an almost complete rescue of hippocampal dendritic morphology abnormalities with no discernable side effects in the mutant mice. Therefore, ALC appears to be a promising therapeutic approach to treating early RTT symptoms and may be useful in combination with other therapies.