Restructuring Society Research Articles

China and the Cholera Pandemic: Restructuring Society under Mao, by Xiaoping Fang

China and the Cholera Pandemic: Restructuring Society under Mao, by Xiaoping Fang

China and the Cholera Pandemic: Restructuring Society under Mao, by Xiaoping Fang. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2021. xiii+312 pp. US$55.00 (cloth).

Previous articleNext article No AccessReviewsChina and the Cholera Pandemic: Restructuring Society under Mao, by Xiaoping Fang. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2021. xiii+312 pp. US$55.00 (cloth).Sarah YuSarah YuUniversity of Pennsylvania Search for more articles by this author PDFPDF PLUSFull Text Add to favoritesDownload CitationTrack CitationsPermissionsReprints Share onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditEmail SectionsMoreDetailsFiguresReferencesCited by The China Journal Volume 88July 2022 Published on behalf of the Australian Centre on China in the World at the Australian National University Article DOIhttps://doi.org/10.1086/720166 Views: 41Total views on this site For permission to reuse, please contact [email protected]PDF download Crossref reports no articles citing this article.

Xiaoping Fang, China and the Cholera Pandemic: Restructuring Society under Mao

Xiaoping Fang, <i>China and the Cholera Pandemic: Restructuring Society under Mao</i>

Materials of the Mind: Phrenology, Race, and the Global History of Science, 1815-1920, by James Poskett

Reviewed by: Materials of the Mind: Phrenology, Race, and the Global History of Science, 1815–1920 by James Poskett Anne Stiles (bio) Materials of the Mind: Phrenology, Race, and the Global History of Science, 1815–1920, by James Poskett; pp. vii + 373. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 2019, $45.00, $44.99 ebook. James Poskett's Materials of the Mind: Phrenology, Race, and the Global History of Science, 1815–1920 presents a bold take on a fascinating subject. By any measure, this is an extraordinarily ambitious project involving substantial archival research, international travel, and translations from at least six languages. The resulting book encourages readers to take phrenology seriously as a worldwide social and scientific movement, its current status as pseudoscience notwithstanding. Today, historians of science view phrenology as a misguided early attempt at what would later be called cerebral localization: that is, the connection of specific regions of the brain with given behaviors, aptitudes, and personality traits. Beginning in the 1860s, British and continental scientists such as Paul Broca, David Ferrier, and Santiago Ramón y Cajal conducted clinical studies and controversial animal experiments that demonstrated correspondences between brain regions and behaviors. For instance, Ferrier's cortical maps, published in his book The Functions of the Brain (1876), allowed brain surgeons to locate a hemorrhage or tumor without first opening the skull. Such advances saved many lives. More recently, technologies such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), positron emission tomography (PET) scans, and functional magnetic resonance imaging (FMRI) have enabled twenty-first-century scientists to pinpoint areas of brain activity with increasing precision. Phrenology, which posited the brain as the organ of mind, was the more speculative forebear of these revolutionary scientific developments. Lacking the surgical and technical know-how of later researchers, pioneering phrenologists like Franz Joseph Gall, Johann Spurzheim, and George Combe made educated guesses about which brain regions corresponded to personality traits and behaviors (for instance, Gall famously [End Page 592] postulated that bulging so-called cow's eyes accompanied a strong verbal memory). They then theorized that bumps and depressions on the skull indicated the size of nearby brain regions. Phrenologists read the heads of prominent men and women, including authors such as Charles Dickens, Charlotte Brontë, and George Eliot, sometimes making plaster casts for instructional purposes. Phrenological enthusiasts also collected skulls from around the world, favoring those that suggested extraordinary ability, criminal tendencies, or racial differences. Materials of the Mind proves—if proof is needed—that histories of so-called pseudosciences can be just as informative as histories of established scientific fields. Given the porous disciplinary boundaries of the era, phrenology might reasonably be considered "a quintessentially nineteenth-century science" that "combined materialist philosophy, international collaboration, and practical investigation," as Poskett argues (4). In fact, many Victorian intellectuals viewed phrenology as a system of ideas capable of reforming and restructuring society. Phrenology informed discussions of slavery, prison reform, and educational reform, among other topics. Chapter 4, for example, explores how phrenological arguments figured in debates about antebellum slavery. Supporters of slavery used skulls and phrenological busts to "prove" African inferiority to Europeans, or even to assert that Africans and Europeans belonged to different "species" (119). Meanwhile, abolitionists like Lydia Maria Child and Lucretia Mott focused on the talents and improvability of the African mind as an argument for the peaceable integration of formerly enslaved people. A third group, which included Combe himself, deplored slavery but believed that freed Blacks should be resettled in Liberia, their minds being unfit for full participation in American society. Such examples show how identical phrenological evidence (often, the very same skulls, plaster busts, or photographs) could be interpreted to support opposing political positions. What is most novel about this book, however, is its global reach. As Poskett notes, previous histories of phrenology tended to confine themselves to a specific nation-state, usually in Europe or North America. Such an approach helped historians limit an otherwise bewildering range of material. By taking a transnational and multilingual approach, Poskett sheds new light on his subject. We learn not just what European and American readers believed about phrenology, but also what Bengali medical students, descendants of West Indian slaves, and twentieth...

F. M. Dostoevsky – great human-lover, expert in human, well-wisher of human, sage and visionary

The philosophical meaning and humanistic pathos of F. M. Dostoevsky’s work is revealed, embodied in his novels and «The diary of a writer». The depth and bottomlessness of a person – the writer’s symbol of faith – are presented. The philosophical, ethical and psychological generalisations of the Russian writer are presented as the central point of the metaphysical problem of man as a personality, her life, quest, suffering, love, faith. The theory of F. M. Dostoevsky’s creativity is reconstructed, for which a person is interesting when he embarks on only his own, individual path, but passing which, highlights something typical for the entire people, its historical fate and destiny, strength and weakness. Only in the personal identity of each person is the general identity of the nation embodied; to defend in any circumstances the honour of the Russian man and the honour of his people – this is precisely what the citizen writer saw as the vocation of Russia. The dialectic of love, freedom, beauty and immortality as components of the meaning of human life is revealed. Against this background, death is presented as an inevitable moral lesson, the meaning of which is to sharpen the feelings of love and humility: love for man and humility before God. This understanding of life and death is opposed by demonic, a phenomenon devoid of love and humility. For F. M. Dostoevsky, who had an acute presentiment of future social upheavals in Russia and Europe, devilry is embodied in the revolutionary ideas of seizing power, restructuring society and man according to the patterns of political leaders who only yearn for domination and submission of others to their will. The prophecies and premonitions made by F. M. Dostoevsky about the future of Russia and its place in world history are characterised. The emphasis is on the writer’s rejection of the revolution as a fratricidal war and the denial of the viability of communist ideas and ideals. Only religiously coloured humanism can be opposed to these gloomy forecasts: a better future will come when people, based on the implementation of the main Christian thesis, to love their neighbour as themselves, will be able to unite into a single harmonious whole or the paradise of Christ.

Leadership, Governance, Management, Administration in Training Teachers and Education Officers

The objective of this paper is to review education management studies in order to test the hypotheses based on the systems approach to the leadership, management and administration of education adapting to the increasing requirements of a restructuring society. The paper uses the methodology of related literature review and scoping university textbooks on education management. The paper tends to demonstrate that recent education management is concentrating on the management of internal elements and inner actions of the education system and school management. The point is to lead, govern, manage and administer the education system facing with surrounding environment to ensure effective adaptation to the conditions of the market-economy, international integration and digitalization.

China and the Cholera Pandemic: Restructuring Society under Mao by XiaopingFang, Pittsburgh, PA, University of Pittsburgh Press, 2021, x + 299 pp.

China and the Cholera Pandemic: Restructuring Society under Mao by XiaopingFang, Pittsburgh, PA, University of Pittsburgh Press, 2021, x + 299 pp.

China and the Cholera Pandemic: Restructuring Society Under Mao by Xiaoping Fang

Reviewed by: China and the Cholera Pandemic: Restructuring Society Under Mao by Xiaoping Fang Rachel Corercore@stetson.edu Xiaoping Fang. China and the Cholera Pandemic: Restructuring Society Under Mao. Histories and Ecologies of Health Series. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2021. 312 pp. $55.00 (cloth). In the global history of disease control, China and the movement of Chinese people play an important role. This statement is as true of today's pandemics as of the El Tor cholera epidemic, which broke out in Wenzhou and its surrounding counties in Zhejiang Province in 1962, after the famine following the Great Leap Forward. Xiaoping Fang makes an extremely timely contribution to the history of epidemics by examining how this pandemic became an integral component of China's social restructuring in the early 1960s. Fang bases much of his meticulous analysis upon local-level—e.g., district, county, and prefectural—archival documents and oral history interviews. The volume will particularly appeal to historians and other social scientists who are interested in how governmental actors, such as epidemic control teams, reach members of the population for public health interventions and data collection. Given the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, this book is likely to have wider appeal, including to "armchair epidemiologists" who are interested more generally in the history of epidemics. The book is organized into three sections, each of which examines a set of fundamental questions about how disease was influenced by and affected social structures. The first section highlights the close relationship between social upheaval and disease outbreaks. Fang pinpoints the origin of China's outbreak to the repatriation of overseas Chinese from Indonesia, where El Tor cholera broke out in Makassar in 1961. Additionally, interprovincial fishing, military mobilization, and domestic migration within China drove the epidemic, as tens of thousands of people were on the move, including would-be urban dwellers who were sent back to the countryside following the Great Leap famine and prior to the implementation of population stabilization measures, such as the resident-permit system. The idea of migrants as "suspected" disease carriers puts this work in conversation with other scholarly works and media reports examining the tendency of societies to blame outsiders or outgroups for infectious disease, including recent accounts of COVID-19. The second section investigates the relationship between social hierarchy and disease outbreaks, how borders affected susceptibility, and quarantine and illness experience. Among these social hierarchies, rural residents were more vulnerable to cholera, due to water and sanitation infrastructure development in cities. Urban areas also had better medical infrastructure and health insurance, which affected compliance with recommendations regarding isolating cases. Another of the hierarchical social divisions was the gendered division of labor. Fang highlights how Communist insistence on women's liberation prompted their participation in agricultural work, increasing their vulnerability to cholera. A third social division was that between the young, healthy soldiers being deployed to coastal Zhejiang to prepare for potential military conflict with Taiwan and [End Page E-21] civilians, who lacked the same access to nutrition and healthcare. As has been the case in the current COVID-19 pandemic, persons with mild and asymptomatic cases contributed to the spread of disease, while a few privileged individuals, such as government officials, were able to evade quarantine measures. The third section turns to inoculation, as well as to advances in the production of statistics as a political process, which allowed the government to consolidate social control over the population. With respect to inoculation and other health campaigns, Fang chronicles that communication and cadre attitudes played an especially important role, given the short history of inoculation in rural China. Although the initial emergency inoculation efforts in 1962 were not properly integrated with the agricultural production calendar, eventually rural cadres recognized that improved health of commune members could increase production. The inoculation register then became a means of improving upon epidemiological data and consolidating the state's biopower. At the same time, rural cadres struggled regarding data transparency and how data might reflect negatively upon their commune. The government eventually decided to suppress coverage of the campaign, developing a coded system for talking about infectious diseases and labeling reports discussing cholera as "secret" or...

Diminishing Violence: Strategising Character in Industrial Fiction

In Mary Barton and Felix Holt, Gaskell and Eliot distract readers from the violence within their novels in a number of ways: the early definition of character, the use of time to distance events, and the interruption of the narrative with long passages of time concentrating on a parallel domestic story. Their strategy is to defuse the fear of violence even as they present it. Showing violence as a result of suffering undermines the notion of the working-class man as an animalistic brute, an ‘other’ who is not quite human. Shown to be vulnerable to the pain of others, he becomes capable of suffering himself and worthy of sympathy. Accordingly, the structures of the novels are designed to suggest that violence is avoidable but through domestic change rather than political upheaval, by improving the workers' lives rather than by restructuring society.

The impact of social macro- and micro-environment on the individual manifestations of aggressiveness

The paper studied the structural components of the social environment as a factor of social interaction between man and environment. The main factors that help the consolidation of patterns of aggressive behavior. Deals with the content of existing scientific philosophical approaches to explaining the social causes of personal aggression. The social environment exists thanks to the many relationships of its members and social institutions. The larger and more diverse palette of components of the social environment, the more intense its development and diverse conditions of life of the individual. The structure of the social environment isolated macro and micro level. Analysis of components of the social environment allows you to assess the state of society as a whole, identify signs of danger in it in the form of social tension, the presence of social conflict, degradation of society, the spread of socially dangerous phenomena and elements. Identify critical characteristics in the social environment is through monitoring processes and phenomena caused by the influence of social factors in different sectors of society. The social nature of aggression noted that in society it arises without specific motives and attitudes, so this phenomenon is more complex than aggression in the animal environment. In society there is aggression and violence results from the social relations prevailing in society, and high or low levels of personal aggression is the result of socialization. Modern studies explain the impact of restructuring society and the formation of new social groups that occur in periods of instability in the relationship of people and aggressive acts together. Fixes the importance of individual psychological states of people arising in periods of instability in society and entail various destructive behaviors

Natural Rights: Henry George and the Economic Fruits of a Good Society

AbstractThis article examines Henry George's understanding of how natural rights grow out of a just society. His views were influenced by the 17th‐century proponents of natural rights, but cannot be subsumed under them. The connection of freedom to obligation affirmed by George's classical Protestantism allowed him to overcome tension between theories of natural law and natural rights. Rights and responsibilities were not abstractions for George. His practical solution for restructuring society offers a modern path to a more just society in which rights would abound.

The Socialist Romance of the Postcolonial Arabic Novel

This essay examines the politics of love in the Arabic novel: how love is used to envision a more just and egalitarian society. The marriage market, courtship practices, and kinship ties—which propagate and calcify gender and class hierarchies—prove formidable obstacles to the realization of the utopian vision of social equality. Love ideology becomes a means of defying these conventions, conceived of as a powerful force breaking down the hegemony of the upper classes and male privilege, challenging their sense of propriety and entitlement, and restructuring society according to more egalitarian principles. This essay contests the dichotomization of romantic and politically committed literature in Arabic literary criticism, and likewise, corresponding assumptions about the division between the personal and political, private and public presumably coded in the novel.

Social etiology of violence against women in India

Religion, customs, age-old prejudices, etc. have put Indian women in a subservient and exploitable position in many domains of life. Low rates of participation in education, lack of economic independence, value biases operating against them, etc., have resulted in the women being dependent on men folk and other institutions of authority like the family, neighborhood and the society. They are usually ignorant of their rights and even if they are not, they do not have easy access to justice. The issues related to women are being raised and discussed in various fora, in the recent times. Of these, ‘violence against women’ is gaining more and more support and recognition, the world over. But despite the enactment of laws, formulation of reformative legal processes, provision of legal aid to the needy, extensive use of the provision of Public Interest Litigation, conduct of Family Courts, Women/Family counseling centers, etc., women in India have a long way to go in concretizing their Constitutional Goals into reality. The problem has to be visualized in a wider context and cannot be viewed in isolation from the status of women in the society. Legislation alone cannot by itself solve deep-rooted social problems; one has to approach them in other ways too. Therefore, what is required is not only a strong legal support network but also opportunities for economic independence, essential education and awareness, alternative accommodation and a change in attitude and mindset of society, judiciary, legislature, executive, men and the most important, woman herself. Restructuring society in terms of power and role relationship while emphasizing the egalitarian values is the need of the day.

The English Levellers (review)

277 fonts used in the edition are attractive and the proof-reading flawless throughout. Graham Tulloch, as editor, David Hewitt, as editor-in-chief, Edinburgh University Press, as publishers, and the others in their team can only be congratulated on this splendid outcome of their efforts. Russell Poole School ofEnglish and Media Studies Massey University Sharp, Andrew, ed., The English Levellers (Cambridge Texts in the History of Political Thought), Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1998; paper; pp. xxxv, 223; 1 table; R.R.P. AUS$31.95. This substantial and well edited book belongs to that small group of anomalous collections in the excellent Cambridge series of texts of political thought. Andrew Sharp presents in a very accessible form to students not the thought of an individual but of a group that is n o w identified by a name coined by their contemporary opponents and which they vehemently rejected. However, leaving aside for the m o m e n t the question whether the Levellers, like the 'Ranters' or the 'Puritans', are a reined concept, the virtues of this edition need to be emphasised. Thirteen important texts by John Lilburne, William Walwyn, Richard Overton, and by two or more of these writing together, dating from the crucial period between August 1645 and August 1649, are carefully but lightly edited, together with crucial extracts from the Putney debates. Sharp also includes a useful chronological table giving parallel attention to major political events and the experiences of leading Levellers, and a brief but serviceable bibliography divided into intelligent sections for further reading (although on p. xxxii 'C. J. Davis' needs to be J. C. Davis). H e also provides useful brief biographies of the major Levellers, the lesser lights (a distinction which is itself an interesting c o m m e n t on the individualism that thwarted their aims) and their chief opponents. Sharp's succinct introduction situates the Levellers in the political and religious turmoil of the 1640s. The various interests jockeying for power, security and the achievements of their ends in an uncertain situation—the King and his advisers, the Parliament, the officers of the N e w Model Army, 278 Reviews its rank andfile,the Levellers and other similar groups—entered into opportunistic alliances and espoused or abandoned political platforms as circumstances required. In these conditions the fact that individuals within these groups displayed major differences in personality, approach and programme should not surprise us. Sharp tellingly contrasts the Levellers' arguments with the explicit subordination inculcated by contemporary social and political relationships and the claims that this subordination demonstrated obedience to the divine will. However, at this point he might have made more of the real threat posed by Leveller doctrines by emphasising the equally firm religious base of their arguments, which undoubtedly explains whatever popular appeal they had. Starting from the premise that God required social equality, the Levellers frightened their opponents by their demand for a social revolution. The specific political, economic and religious reforms they advocated might have resembled those of the more radical amongst the officers, but only the Levellers saw them as necessary steps towards fundamentally restructuring society. The details of those policies were less important than the end towards which they tended, which m a y explain Leveller opportunism in adapting those policies to contingent political circumstances. Sharp's discussion of the historiographical traditions through which the Levellers have been variously labelled, and in which he concludes that they were 'liberal democrats', might have been more convincing i f he had given due weight to the sense of religious duty which enlivened their democratic arguments, for that would also have helped to explain w h y these zealots for equality did not dream of extending the same arguments to women. N o modern democratic arguments, even, or especially, those of liberal democrats, depend upon religious sanction, which is w h y they can be easily extended to feminine emancipation. This fundamental belief in the divine commandment of social equality becomes more important as a distinguishing mark of the group when w e reflect that Sharp's biographies, like his discussion of Leveller opportunism, tend to emphasise the individual differences within the group...

The Interhuman and What is Common to All: Martin Buber and Sociology

Martin Buber was close to sociology and sociologists from his university years on and in 1938 was head of the new Department of Sociology at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Although influenced by Ferdinand Toennies, and George Simmel, he went beyond them in his philosophy of the “interhuman” from which standpoint he also criticized Max Scheler. Focal social concepts of Buber's are “the interhuman”_the dialogical relationship between persons that entails “inclusion,” or “imagining the real,” making present, and confirmation (compared here with the social psychology of George Herbert Mead); the “essential We” or common cosmos that each helps to build by speech‐with‐meaning from his or her unique stance; the distinction between the “political principle” of government and the “social principle” of fellowship and social spontaneity; and the philosophy of community that led Buber to a federalistic socialism and the vision of restructuring society into a “community of communities”.

Gender Issues in Preparing a Professional Workforce: New Views of Women's Work in Early Care and Education

The increased number of early care and education (ECE) programs worldwide is a response to parents' workforce decisions, to economic policies, and to new knowledge about early learning. Ninety percent of the ECE workforce is women. While most ECE theorists have been men, women have been the invisible program implementers, teachers, and teacher educators. The combination of numbers of ECE programs, the characteristics of “traditional” work in a female-dominated field, and society's attitudes toward employed women, especially mothers, has created a dilemma. Possible solutions include re-structuring society's thinking about women connected with ECE and re-defining the processes in expressing the changed view. This article proposes that ECE is not traditional women's work. ECE is similar to non-traditional jobs.

A Note on The Empirical Analysis of Wagner’s Law

This paper examines the empirical analysis of the two main hypotheses subsumed under Wagner’s Law. Both “Wagner’s Law Version One: Restructuring Society” and “Wagner’s Law Version Two: Income-Elastic Demand” have received considerable attention in the literature, although the latter version somewhat more than the former. Empirical support for both variants of Wagner’s Law is mixed, probably due to the imprecision with which they are formulated and the resulting scope for diversity in empirical methodology.

SUCCESS STORY IN MALAYSIA'S DEVELOPMENT: CONVENTIONAL AND ISLAMIC PERSPECTIVES

The term success in this paper is measured by the yardstick of both material and non‐material ones. This study attempts to examine the success story behind Malaysia's development with evidences drawn from both the conventionally used criteria together with the Islamically motivated universal values and ethos. Of the conventional factors, political consolidation of the first Prime Minister in the presence of dynamic enterprising ability of the Chinese as well as South Indian Community based on family values played a pivotal role in creating a foundation for development. The majority Malays, on the other hand, being the victim of colonial legacies and multi‐farious historical phenomenon were by‐passed. Subsequently, the big bargain of 1957, the year of independence by way of securing Malay special rights in the constitution laid the foundation for new strategy of development based on distributive justice. The New Economic Policy with the twin objetives of eradicating poverty and restructuring society could not have been implemented in the absence of universal values such as loyalty, tolerance, sympathy, caring and sharing being demonstrated by all the races regardless of socio‐economic and political superiority. This paper thus argues that from the very beginning the committed and pragmatic leadership, policy continuation, policy dynamism and policy flexibility, among many others, acted as a catalyst for the success story behind Malaysia's development.

Beautiful Imperialist: China Perceives America, 1972-1990 , and: China and Japan in the Global Setting (review)

190 SAIS Review WINTER-SPRING 1994 infrastructure problems thatwould have prompted the building ofdie Trans-Siberian railroad, had that decision been truly economic in nature. This book makes few, if any, references to contemporary history, though it anticipates recent events, giving the reader an eerie sense that Russian history, in particular, is prone to repeating itself. For instance, the concerns of the Siberian regionalists over the construction of the Trans-Siberian in the late 1800s closely parallel Siberians' fears today. They are exasperated with die continued preeminence of non-Siberian interests in every decision made concerning die region. They are afraid that tying the region more closely to Moscow will only perpetuate the center's political and economic stranglehold. In short, Marks' work is most timely. At the turn ofdie century, the Siberian "Road to Power" was seen through a purely political prism. Now die end ofthe Cold War and die dawn ofa new century have redefined just what constitutes "power". Siberia and its exploitation may indeed be the road to economic prosperity, which lies at the root ofpower today. As the Pacific Rim region becomes.more and more economically integrated, and with Siberia and die Far East holding tremendous potential as emerging markets, it will become ever more important to understand the region, its historical experiences and economic legacy. Beautiful Imperialist: China Perceives America, 1972-1990. By David Shambaugh. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991. 326 pp. $39.50/Hardback, $16.95/Softcover. China and Japan in the Global Setting. By Akira Iriye. Cambridge, MA: Hatvard University Press, 1992. 156 pp. $22.50/Hardback. Reviewed by Matthew Flynn. Mr. Flynn holds a BA from the University of Vermont and is an MA candidate at SAIS. The end of the Cold War has generated considerable debate about the appropriate pradigm in which to organize the images of the new world disorder. Unfortunately, such inquiries often use American fears or wishful thinking as a point ofdeparture. As the United States turns its gaze towards the Asia Pacific region and considers how to construct "a new Pacific Community," Beautiful Imperialist: China Perceives America, 1972-1990 by David Shambaugh and China and Japan in the Global Setting by Akira Iriye are invaluable aids to understanding the dynamics ofthis new center of political and economic power. These studies are unique because they move away from the question of.how die United States perceives China and Japan. Instead, Shambaugh and Iriye focus on some of the salient issues in Japan and China's foreign relations. By considering the power, cultural and economic aspects of international relations, Iriye, the director of Japanese Studies at Harvard, presents a periodization that sets Sino-Japanese relations in a new light. After the Meiji resoration in Japan and the Opium Wars in China, the most important question for both countries was BOOK REVIEWS 191 how to achieve the power diat Western nations possessed. During this era in which power was paramount, Japan strengthened itself by building industries with the reparations it received after China's defeat in the Sino-Japanese Wat (1894-5). The unequal treaties that Japan negotiated also kept China's tariffs low and thus created a matket for Japan's exports. As he has long argued, Iriye dien discusses how Sino-Japanese relations bewteen World Wars I and II are best understood in economic and cultural terms rather than purely military ones. As economic matters deteriorated, culture became the salient feature ofinternational relations, and fot die Japanese, war became a way of restructuring society and redefining culture. Iriyedoes not discount the importance of land, power and resource accumulation as an explanation forJapanese expansionism, but instead atgues diat culture was the key element that sparked the untenable war on the continent. Not culture in the sense ofinherent aggressiveness, but rather die desire to harmonize all five races of Northeast Asia: Han, Mongol, Manchu, Korean and Japanese. With the apparent failure ofliberalism and capitalism, Japan's sacred war was launched to purge Asia of die West and create a new cultural consciousness in Asia. China responded to Japan's aggression by championing Western values of personal emancipation and unity in opposition to tyranny. It was in response to the...

Invisible Victims: White Males and the Crisis of Affirmative Action.

Introduction: Social Policy by Steamroller Affirmative Action: Legal History and Public Opinion An Affirmative Action Sampler Invisible Victims: Individual Reactions Invisible Victims: Reactions of Co-Wrokers, Friends, and Relatives Invisible Victims: Institutional Responses Affirmative Action and the Mass Media The Spiral of Silence and the New McCarthyism Affirmative Action, the University, and Sociology Elite Recommendation and the Flaws of Affirmative Action Manifest Consequences of Affirmative Action Restructuring Society by Race and Gender: Latent Functions of Affirmative Action Appendixes Index