Snowball Sampling Research Articles

Mitigating the Influence of Message Features on Health Misinformation Sharing Intention in Social Media: Experimental Evidence for Accuracy-Nudge Intervention

RationaleThe escalating dissemination of health misinformation on social media platforms poses a significant threat to users' well-being. It is imperative to identify the types of health misinformation that are more susceptible to widespread dissemination and to explore strategies to curb its spread. MethodThis study designed a 2 (emotional appeal type: positive vs. negative) × 2 (fabricated source type: pseudo-common vs. pseudo-authoritative) × 2 (accuracy-nudge label: No vs. Yes) online between-subjects experiment controlling for factors such as e-health literacy, prior sharing experience, and personal involvement. A snowball sampling approach was used to recruit 1,952 participants through social media, resulting in a final sample of 1,393 valid responses. ResultsCompared to positive emotional appeal and pseudo-common sources, negative emotional appeal and pseudo-authoritative sources resulted in higher levels of sharing intention. Under the condition of negative emotional appeal, the promotion effect of pseudo-authoritative sources on sharing intention was intensified. The accuracy-nudge intervention could significantly mitigate this tendency. The underlying mechanisms revealed more details: both negative emotional appeals and pseudo-authoritative sources increased the perceived credibility of health misinformation, thereby increasing users' sharing intention. However, in contrast to pseudo-authoritative sources, excessive negative emotional appeal induced vigilant verification behavior among users, which reduced sharing to some extent. Adding an accuracy-nudge label to health misinformation reduced users' misguided trust in health misinformation features and stimulated information verification, ultimately reducing health misinformation sharing intention. ConclusionsNegative emotional appeal and pseudo-authoritative sources can enhance the perceived credibility of health misinformation, thereby strengthening the sharing intention of social media users. Therefore, health misinformation with negative emotional appeal and pseudo-authoritative sources is more likely to be widely shared. The accuracy nudge intervention can trigger users' information verification behavior, suppress the persuasive effects of the misinformation features mentioned above, and help prevent the spread of health misinformation on social media.

Nyeruan: Traditional Medicine of the Sasak Tribe in the Perspective of Islam, Medicine and Legislation in Indonesia

This research aims to understand the history of the emergence of the traditional nyeruan healing tradition, how the treatment procession is carried out, how this treatment is in the view of Islam and modern health science. This research lasted for six months using qualitative methods with a phenomenological approach. Determining informants in this study used snowball sampling. The data collection techniques use participant-observation techniques, interviews, documentation, and also triangulation. Data analysis in this research uses the Social Construction theory of Peter L. Berger and Tomas Luckman, and Herbert Blumer's Symbolic Intractionism theory. Based on the research results, it shows that the traditional healing tradition of nyeruan does not violate the laws and regulations in Indonesia, so the practice is still being preserved, especially among the Sasak community

생성AI를 이용한 디자인 리서치 방법론 제안

This study explores the impact of AI tools like ChatGPT on design methodologies, focusing on the Double Diamond Model. It aims to understand how AI can transform traditional design processes and offer insights into the future of design. Design experts from industry and academia were selected using intentional and snowball sampling. Focus Group Interviews(FGI) and In-Depth Interviews(IDI) were conducted over two weeks. Results were validated through discussions and Denzin's triangulation method. ChatGPT positively influences design thinking, data-driven decision-making, and user experiences. It enhances efficiency and creativity in the design process, leading to innovative changes in the industry. This research lays the foundation for understanding AI's potential impact on design. The integration of AI and design is expected to reshape design methodologies, exemplified by the AI-Driven Double Diamond Model, with broad applications across the industry.

생성AI를 이용한 디자인 리서치 방법론 제안

This study explores the impact of AI tools like ChatGPT on design methodologies, focusing on the Double Diamond Model. It aims to understand how AI can transform traditional design processes and offer insights into the future of design. Design experts from industry and academia were selected using intentional and snowball sampling. Focus Group Interviews(FGI) and In-Depth Interviews(IDI) were conducted over two weeks. Results were validated through discussions and Denzin's triangulation method. ChatGPT positively influences design thinking, data-driven decision-making, and user experiences. It enhances efficiency and creativity in the design process, leading to innovative changes in the industry. This research lays the foundation for understanding AI's potential impact on design. The integration of AI and design is expected to reshape design methodologies, exemplified by the AI-Driven Double Diamond Model, with broad applications across the industry.

A Case Study of Web-Based Communication for Online Teaching and Learning at a Christian University in Buddhist Thailand

Quality education, which is the fourth element of the sustainable development goals of the United Nations, suffered dramatically in the time of the pandemic. Unprepared, most academic institutions started to embark on web-based education. This research addressed the most and least effective learning experiences for both students and instructors in online learning and teaching. This case study employed both descriptive statistical data and qualitative information to have a well-rounded understanding of the phenomenon of digital education. This study used non-random, purposive, convenience, snowball, and quota sampling methods to invite research collaborators. Thematic analysis was employed to obtain rich qualitative insights that supplement the quantitative data. The raw data was collected from both instructors and students who were engaged in online education during the pandemic. The findings revealed that both instructors and students complained that the least effective learning experiences is the poor internet connectivity, as it is an obstacle that interrupted smooth flowing online learning and teaching. By presenting real-world insights, stressing significant findings, and offering recommendations, this article contributes to a more profound comprehension of web-based classroom. In this period of re-globalization after the end of the pandemic, online education is now mainstream. Keywords: communication, education, feedback, online learning, online teaching

Antibiotic Misuse during the COVID-19 Pandemic in Lebanon: A Cross-Sectional Study

Background: Over the past 100 years, the discovery of antibiotics is regarded as one of the most significant advances in medical research and has saved millions of lives. However, the emergence of antimicrobial-resistant bacteria has significantly reduced the efficacy of antibiotics against infectious disorders. Antimicrobial resistance is mostly caused by antibiotic misuse for conditions that may be treated with self-care. During the COVID-19 pandemic, antibiotic use has been out of control among the general population. Aim: The objective of this study is to investigate the prevalence of antibiotic misuse during the COVID-19 pandemic in Lebanon. Methods: In January 2024, a descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted amongst students registered at the Islamic University of Lebanon. Individuals who have been infected with COVID-19 at least once were eligible for the study and were selected by a non-random snowball sampling technique. Descriptive and quantitative analyses were performed using SPSS 21. Results: Out of the 478 participants who completed the questionnaire, 40.2% (n = 192) received antibiotics during the COVID-19 infection. A physician’s prescription is mentioned by some participants (51%, n = 98), followed by a pharmacist’s (23.4%, n = 45), self-taken (14.5%, n = 28), and others as family or friends (10.9%, n = 21). Moreover, 59.3% (n = 114) of the respondents respected the antibiotic therapy’s rules, and 40.6% (n = 78) discontinued taking the antibiotic when they felt better. Conclusion: Our results showed that participants were likely to show unsatisfactory compliance and to use non-prescribed antibiotics. Campaigns are urgently needed to promote appropriate antibiotic use.

Teachers’ Use of Code Switching to Pashto Language in Classroom Discussion: Experiences of non-Pashto Speaking Students in University of Peshawar

The purpose of the study was to explore the learning experiences of non-Pashto speaking students, which ensued due to teachers’ code switching to Pashto language at University of Peshawar. Employing qualitative methods, the objectives of the study included: exploring perceptions of students about teachers’ use of code switching on non-Pashto speaking students’ learning; analyzing the difficulties students’ face; and exploring strategies that students use to overcome the barriers of language in learning. Population of the study consisted of students of University of Peshawar. Using snowball sampling technique, 25 participants were selected from three faculties of University of Peshawar. The data were collected through semi-structured in-depth interviews and analyzed using thematic analysis technique. Findings of the study reveal that some teachers code switch to Pashto, the local language which creates barriers in learning for the non-Pashto speaking students. This code switching affects students’ academically, behaviorally and emotionally. Consequently, students face an obstructive classroom climate, which severely influences their level of attention and interest and results in their non-participative role in class. The study recommends considering inclusive education principles in linguistically diverse classrooms, so that all the students are treated and benefited equally. Moreover, it suggests that teachers adhere to the National Professional Standards for Teachers in Pakistan (NPSTs) to enhance learning effectiveness.

Participation of Gapoktan Sidomakmur Members in Purworation Village, Purwosari Subdistrict

Community or member participation is one of the important aspects in the running of an institution or organisation. This research was conducted to analyse the participation of Gapoktan Sido Makmur members. It is a research that uses qualitative approach. Determination of informants was done by purposive sampling with key informants and snowball sampling techniques, a total of 12 informants. Data validity used triangulation as a method to validate the data. The discussion was conducted with reference to the theory of Totok Mardikanto and Subianto. The results show that the participation of Gapoktan Sidomakmur members is divided into four types, namely decision-making, implementation of activities, monitoring and evaluation of activities, and utilisation of development results. Participation in decision-making is still low due to lack of understanding, ineffective communication, and lack of awareness among members. In contrast, participation in the implementation of development activities is high due to members' commitment and awareness of the benefits. However, participation in monitoring and evaluation is still low due to a lack of understanding of the importance of these activities. On the other hand, participation in utilisation of development outcomes is high, indicating members' awareness and commitment to engage in economic and social activities resulting from development.

Ethnopharmaceutical Study of Plants as an Alternative Treatment Gastritis Baluwarti Society

The Baluwarti community is a community that lives around the Surakarta Hadiningrat Palace with consist of princes relatives, courtiers, and ordinary people. Baluwarti community to currently still carrying out traditional medicine traditions by utilizing medicinal plants as a treatment in Baluwarti village, gastritis is included in the category of 15 diseases frequent highs. This research is an ethnopharmaceutical research aimed at to find out the local name of the plant, the part used, the way of processing, the rules usage, and treatment methods used as an alternative treatment of gastritis carried out by the community around the Surakarta Hadiningrat Palace. This research is descriptive research that uses quantitative methods. The analysis parameters used are: Use Value (UV), Informant Consensus Factor (ICF), Fidelity Level (FL), and Plant Part Value (PPV). Sampling technique using snowball sampling through open ended interview with the community around the Surakarta Hadiningrat Palace. Based on results interviews with 17 informants found 13 types of medicinal plants used as alternatives treatment of gastritis includes African plants, neem plants, cassava genderuwo, white turmeric, temulawak, cassava, and ginger are processed by boiling. In addition, breadfruit pace and white duwet that can be eaten immediately. Turmeric by processing is ground and grated, as well as aloe vera that is taken mucus using a spoon. The result of the ICF value obtained disease gastritis with a value of 0.25. Plant species that have the highest UV value with a value 0.647 and the highest FL yield of 64.70% is turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) while the PPV value obtained the use of plant parts that are most often used as medicinal materials traditional is 30% rhizome, 18% leaf, 12% fruit, 12% tuber, and 6% mucus.

Gender Disparities in Pro-Environmental Attitudes: Implications for Sustainable Business Practices in Croatia

Objective – This research aimed to investigate potential disparities between genders in Croatia regarding their pro-environmental attitudes and mindsets, focusing on understanding how gender influences individuals' environmental consciousness and support for sustainable practices. This paper presents an empirical study utilizing survey data to examine gender differences in environmental attitudes and behaviors. Methodology – It contributes to the field of environmental sociology by exploring the role of gender in shaping individuals' responses to environmental challenges, with implications for policy development and sustainability initiatives. By employing an online survey via snowball sampling, a total of 263 adult participants from Croatia were recruited for the study. Closed-ended questions on a Likert scale measured respondents' attitudes towards recycling, waste sorting, environmental protection urgency, and health impacts of environmental issues. Findings – The findings in this research indicate that gender plays a role in influencing individuals' environmental attitudes and behaviors, with significant gender-based variations in environmental consciousness. Women exhibit higher levels of concern for environmental issues, stronger support for recycling policies, and a more positive outlook on the health implications of ecological problems. This study provides valuable insights into the connection between gender and environmentalism in Croatia, making significant contributions to existing literature. Moreover, it offers implications for the development of policies targeting environmental management and recognizing the need to influence the environmental behavior of each gender. By focusing on gender disparities in pro-environmental behaviors, the study offers new insights into the connection between gender and environmentalism, emphasizing the need for gender-sensitive approaches to environmental policymaking and intervention. Novelty – The research aims to deepen our understanding of the intersection between gender and environmental attitudes, highlighting the importance of incorporating gender-specific perspectives into efforts to promote sustainable behaviors, address environmental challenges, and foster more environmentally conscious societies in Croatia and beyond. Type of Paper: Empirical JEL Classification: F64, J16, Q54, Q56 Keywords: environmental attitudes, sustainability, eco-awareness, environmental behavior Reference to this paper should be made as follows: Mandarić, D; Hunjet, S.A. (2024). Gender Disparities in Pro-Environmental Attitudes: Implications for Sustainable Business Practices in Croatia, J. Bus. Econ. Review, 9(1), 73–84. https://doi.org/10.35609/jber.2024.9.1(4)

PADANGBULIA PEOPLE'S RESISTANCE TO PUBLIC POLICY NUMBER 10 OF 1951 CONCERNING THE ABOLITION OF THE MANAK SALAH TRADITION

In Bali, the birth of "kembar buncing," or mixed-gender twins, is often associated with negative connotations. Specifically, in Padangbulia, such births are traditionally accompanied by a ritual that includes the exile of the infants to a location deemed haunted by the local community. This practice of exile is a violation of human rights, leading to the issuance of Paswaran Number 10 of 1951, which mandates the abolition of the "Manak Salah" tradition. However, despite this regulation, the Padangbulia community continues to uphold the tradition. This study aims to explore the processes and forms of resistance by the Padangbulia community against the mandated abolition. The research adopts a qualitative descriptive approach, utilizing cultural semiotics and resistance theory to understand the community's actions. Data collection involved snowball sampling to select informants, supported by participant observation, interviews, and document analysis. Findings reveal that the "kembar buncing" tradition in Padangbulia involves several stages, including preparation, exile, and purification. The resistance to abolishing the tradition manifests both openly and covertly, highlighting the community's deep-seated cultural values and the complex dynamics between tradition and regulatory enforcement. This study sheds light on the persistence of traditional practices despite external pressures and the role of cultural resistance in maintaining local customs.

Work Ethic of Women Laweyan Batik Craftsmen During the Covid-19 Pandemic

At the beginning of 2020, the global COVID-19 pandemic crisis occurred which had an impact on the batik industry in Laweyan Village, namely a decline in sales of up to 60% and the threat of bankruptcy. The formulation of the research problem is what is the work ethic of women Laweyan batik craftsmen during the COVID-19 pandemic. This research uses a qualitative method with a case study approach. There are two sampling techniques used in this research, namely snowball sampling which is used to look for informants for women craftsmen through key informants from the management of the Laweyan Batik Village Development Forum (FPKBL), and purposive sampling is used to find out whether the informant knows the data being sought. The research results found that women Batik Laweyan craftsmen had a work ethic during the COVID-19 pandemic. Data was obtained through 10 dimensions of work ethic theory, which shows that female Laweyan batik craftsmen still had a work ethic when the COVID-19 pandemic occurred. This research concludes that Laweyan Batik craftsmen still have a work ethic even though they are experiencing the COVID-19 pandemic crisis.

Rate of desertification, climate change and coping strategies: Insights from smallholder farmers in Ghana's Upper East Region

Climate change and desertification are global issues that are affecting agricultural activities in Sub-Saharan Africa. These phenomena have made it challenging for smallholder farmers to cope with the emerging global food crises. This article examines the evidence of desertification and climate change and how smallholder farmers in the Upper East Region of Ghana are responding to these threats. Primary data was analysed through interviews and focus group discussions. We used Landsat satellite-based annual mean Normalized Difference Vegetation Index, climate, crop production data, and reports from the Ministry of Food and Agriculture and other NGOs as secondary sources. We interviewed eighty respondents using case history and snowball sampling. The mean annual NDVI declined from 0.5 in 1998 to −0.10 in 2022. NDVI values suggest a decline in green vegetation health to a negative value, suggesting a non-vegetative surface. This means that the process of desertification has progressed to severe levels, resulting in little to no vegetation cover on the land surface. Similarly, rainfall data suggests a sharp decline in annual rainfall while farmers change the types of crops and the timing of planting. Farmers discussed the impact of climate change and desertification on their livelihoods. They have implemented approaches like using synthetic fertilisers, planting drought-resistant crops, practising dry-season farming, irrigating their crops, and building social support networks. Food insecurity and land degradation are major issues due to continuous cropping and population growth. Smallholder farmers suggest providing them with affordable, drought-resistant seedlings with shorter gestation periods to increase food production and avoid insecurity.

The Role of Stakeholders in the Development of Gapoktan Sidomakmur

The role of stakeholders affect the implemented programme such as member participation and the impact of the role. This research used qualitative approach with descriptive method. The research method applied in this descriptive approach was a case study. The determination of informants was carried out by purposive sampling with key informants and snowball sampling techniques, a total of 12 informants. Data validity used triangulation as a method to validate the data. The results showed that the development of Gapoktan Sidomakmur in the food security programme involved five main roles of stakeholders. These roles included policy-making by the Bojonegoro District DKPP and Purwosari Village Government as policy makers, coordination by the Gapoktan chairperson and farmer groups as coordinators, and facilitator roles by BPP, PPLs, Village Facilitators, and Purwosari Village Government. Programme implementation involved members of Gapoktan, farmer groups, and the Purwosari Village Government as implementers, as well as the role of accelerators by the Purwosari District Government, PPLs, and Village Facilitators. Although cooperation between stakeholders in the development of Gapoktan Sidomakmur in Purwosari Village is quite good, not all stakeholders are fully involved in carrying out their roles, which was evident from the lack of maximum support for Gapoktan Sidomakmur’s programmes.

Impediments to building information modelling-enabled construction waste management in Nigeria

PurposeBuilding Information modelling (BIM) has the potential to significantly minimise the quantity of construction waste (CW), but its adoption is low in construction waste management (CWM). This study examined the factors impeding the adoption of BIM in CWM efforts at the design and precontract stages from the perspective of construction stakeholders in Nigeria.Design/methodology/approachThe study was informed by a post-positivism philosophical stance, which involved using the structured questionnaire as a quantitative research design tool for data collection via snowball sampling technique. The data garnered from construction experts were analysed using Cronbach’s alpha test, normalities test, Frequency, Percentage, Kendall’s coefficient of concordance and Chi-square tests, Analysis of variance (ANOVA), and exploratory factors analysis (EFA).FindingsThe study concluded that the awareness of BIM potential for CWM is high, but the adoption in waste management (WM) is low. The factor analysis reduced the twenty assessed factors into four key clusters of impediments to BIM adoption in CWM: (1) knowledge and resistance barriers, (2) support and interest barriers, (3) interoperability and experts' factors, and (4) economic barriers. These factors are critical impediments to BIM-enabled CWM at the design and precontract stage, and there was no significant statistical difference in their rating by the construction stakeholders in Nigeria.Originality/valueStudies on the impediments to BIM adoption in CWM efforts, primarily at the design and pre-contract stages in emerging countries are scarce. This sought to fill this literature gap by establishing the critical impediments that should be overcome to improve BIM use in CWM.

Prevalence and predictors of condom use among people who inject drugs in Georgia.

People who inject drugs (PWID) are more likely to engage in risky sexual behavior placing them at high risk of acquiring HIV and other STIs. This study aims to assess the prevalence and predictors of inconsistent condom use with casual and/or paid sexual partners among PWID in Georgia. Integrated Bio-Behavioral Surveillance Survey was conducted among PWID in seven major cities of Georgia. Study design was cross-sectional with respondent-driven sampling (RDS) methodology. Data collection was carried out through individual face-to-face interviews. In this paper we analysed subsample of 619 PWID who reported having casual and/or paid sexual partners during last 12 months and described prevalence and predictors of consistent condom use. Consistent condom use during casual and/or paid sex in past 12 months was reported by 49.4% of respondents. The likelihood of consistent use with casual and/or paid sexual partners was statistically significantly associated with residence, family income, drug use frequency, drug dependance and HIV risk self-perceptions. In multivariate analysis independent predictors of always using condom at casual/paid sex during the last 12 months were place of residence (aOR = 6.4; 95% CI: 3.2-12.7), family income (aOR = 2.1; 95% CI:1.3-3.5) and drug use frequency (aOR = 0.6; 95% CI: 0.4-0.9). The study revealed low prevalence of consistent condom use with casual and/or paid sexual partners among PWID in Georgia. Integration of safe sex educational interventions in harm reduction services will improve the rates of condom use among PWID and should focus PWID with lower socio-economic status and residing outside capital city.

Gambaran Fear of Success pada Wanita Single Pemilik Online Shop di Kalimantan Tengah

It is widespread in society to see the division of labor between women and men based on gender. The daughter helps her mother, and the son helps her father, showing that a woman is more productive in housework. Gender inequality is generated by discriminatory behavior against women caused by this injustice in the division of roles. However, this is different for single women. Until now, they still have problems carrying out responsibilities that must be done, such as running work and taking care of their families. Based on these events, single women experience feelings of fear, known as fear of success. Because of the fear of the negative consequences that may occur if successful, fear becomes a mental barrier to achievement. Every woman must have dreams to achieve, but inadequate circumstances and societal demands make her afraid to succeed. This study uses qualitative methods and is a type of phenomenological research. Theme-driven analysis is used in theory. The information in this study is collected from three single women selected through purposive and snowball sampling. The results of this study show that single women who have experienced fear of success experience the following: fear of themselves, pessimism, doubt about living both roles, pessimism, and difficulty starting new things due to environmental factors.

Hey Siri! does he love me? Unveiling the phenomena of emotional detachmentamong seafarers

Purpose The challenges seafarers face are unique due to the nature of their work. Individuals in this profession face unique stressors such as limited interaction with people, isolation from society, confined workspaces, unpredictable weather conditions and exposure to hazardous situations. Quantitative methods used in studies on seafarers’ well-being fail to capture the individual experiences, emotions and motivations that make up their rich tapestry. The prevailing reliance on close-ended questionnaires is a hindrance to seafarers’ expression of subjective experiences and difficulties. It is essential to prioritize their well-being, both from a humanitarian standpoint and an economic perspective. Design/methodology/approach For this study, the authors coted qualitative data using open-ended semi-structured questionnaires from 35 (35) merchant navy sailors. The drive of the study was clearly stated to the respondents by the researchers. The study focuses on the emotional detachment of seafarers and follows a two-phase sampling process: criterion sampling and snowball sampling. The sampling methods are chosen in accordance with the purpose of the study. Findings The in-depth qualitative inquiry and detailed analysis of interview excerpts generated three broad themes that explain the occurrence of emotional detachment among seafarers. The qualitative study advances the knowledge base of the intricate phenomena of mariner’s emotional detachment. The themes illuminate the causes and outcomes of emotional detachment, also necessitating the need for intervention. Originality/value This study highlights the issue of seafarers at work, which tends to affect their personal and professional lives. The lived experiences of seafarers help us understand the issue of emotional detachment from a better and more in-depth perspective. This certainly helps companies and policymakers customize their interventions to seafarers’ needs.

Etnoscience of Traditional Alcoholic Beverages (Moke Putih) of Ngada East Nusa Tenggara

Ngada district has a traditional drink called moke putih. Moke putih is a traditional alcoholic beverage made from the Aren’s water (Arenga pinnata Merr.) that is found in Flores. For the people of Ngada, moke putih is a symbol of being kind and harmony, and the consumption of moke has become a lifestyle for most people in there. This drink has a lot of potential because it has strong historical elements and cultural values. The purpose of this research is to know the history, processing, and the connection between moke putih and the culture of Ngada. The research method is a qualitative approach to ethnoscience through purposive sampling techniques and snowball samplings from villages with 10 respondents and data collection through interviews, observations, and documentation. Moke Putih is a traditional drink that has been passed down from generation to generation and is closely related to the culture, customs, and characteristics of the Ngada people. White moke is made from slicing the fruit stalks of the sap tree, and this drink is used at every traditional event and in daily activities as a substitute for drinking water.

Etnoscience of Traditional Alcoholic Beverages (Moke Putih) of Ngada East Nusa Tenggara

Ngada district has a traditional drink called moke putih. Moke putih is a traditional alcoholic beverage made from the Aren’s water (Arenga pinnata Merr.) that is found in Flores. For the people of Ngada, moke putih is a symbol of being kind and harmony, and the consumption of moke has become a lifestyle for most people in there. This drink has a lot of potential because it has strong historical elements and cultural values. The purpose of this research is to know the history, processing, and the connection between moke putih and the culture of Ngada. The research method is a qualitative approach to ethnoscience through purposive sampling techniques and snowball samplings from villages with 10 respondents and data collection through interviews, observations, and documentation. Moke Putih is a traditional drink that has been passed down from generation to generation and is closely related to the culture, customs, and characteristics of the Ngada people. White moke is made from slicing the fruit stalks of the sap tree, and this drink is used at every traditional event and in daily activities as a substitute for drinking water.