Resource Allocation Patterns Research Articles

Hormopriming and duration of priming interaction on germination, emergence and subsequent growth productivity performance in pechay

This study investigated the potential of Ficus nota water (FNW) as a natural soaking agent to enhance seed germination, emergence, and subsequent growth performance in Pechay (Brassica rapa subsp. chinensis). Utilizing varying FNW concentrations (0%, 50%, and 100%) and seed soaking durations (2, 4, 6 hours), the research aimed to identify optimal treatment combinations for maximizing pre-transplant vigor and post-transplant productivity of Pechy. The results revealed a significant interaction between FNW concentration and soaking time, accelerating germination onset and promoting germination percentage. Notably, the 50% FNW treatment coupled with the 4-hour soaking duration expedited germination by 60% compared to the untreated control. This optimal priming combination also positively influenced seedling height, root proliferation, and biomass accumulation during the pre-transplant nursery stage. Post-transplantation, FNW-primed seedlings exhibited taller stems and broader leaves compared to non-primed controls. However, despite enhancing vegetative growth, priming did not translate into increased biomass yields, suggesting potential trade-offs in resource allocation patterns. The findings highlight the efficacy of FNW in expediting germination and enhancing nursery vigor, while underscoring the need for further investigations into the mechanisms governing the translation of early growth promotion into marketable yields under field conditions. This research contributes valuable insights into the application of natural plant extracts for optimizing seed priming protocols and potentially improving crop productivity.

Coordination between water relations strategy and carbon investment in leaf and stem in six fruit tree species.

The water relation strategy is a key issue in climate change. Given the difficulty of determining water relations strategy, there is a need for simple traits with a solid theoretical basis to estimate it. Traits associated with resource allocation patterns along a 'fast-slow' plant economics spectrum are particularly compelling, reflecting trade-offs between growth rate and carbon allocation. Avocado (Persea americana ), fig tree (Ficus carica ), mandarin (Citrus reticulata ), olive (Olea europaea ), pomegranate (Punica granatum ), and grapevine (Vitis vinifera ) were characterised in terms of iso-anisohydric strategy through stomatal behaviour, water potential at the turgor loss point (TLP), and hydroscape area. Additionally, the association of these metrics with leaf mass per area (LMA) and wood density (WDen) was explored. We observed high coordination between LMA and WDen, and both traits were related to metrics of water relation strategy. More anisohydric species tended to invest more carbon per unit leaf area or unit stem volume, which has implications for hydraulic efficiency and water stress tolerance. WDen and TLP were the most powerful traits in estimating the water relation strategy for six fruit species. These traits are easy to measure, time-cost efficient, and appear central to coordinating multiple traits and behaviours along the water relations strategies.

Selection favours high spread and asymmetry of flower opening dates within plant individuals

Abstract Natural selection on traits expressed repeatedly by individuals is usually investigated with a focus on mean values, although within‐individual trait distributions often differ also in other aspects, such as their spread and shape. In plants producing multiple flowers during a season, there might not be a single optimal flowering time, but rather an optimal distribution of flower opening dates. This optimal distribution might depend on both resource allocation patterns and interactions with the abiotic and biotic environment. In this study, we quantified mean, variance, skewness and kurtosis of 495 individual flowering schedules (5287 flowers) over 3 years, and assessed phenotypic selection on these aspects of the within‐individual distribution of opening dates in the perennial herb Lathyrus vernus. We also explored how selection on within‐individual variation in flowering schedules was related to effects on two fitness components: fruit set and the proportion of seeds escaping pre‐dispersal predation. Within‐individual variation in phenology was larger than, or at least similar to, among‐individual variation in all years. We found phenotypic selection on several aspects of individual flowering schedules. In 1 year, selection favoured plants with higher variance in opening dates, and this coincided with a higher fruit set in plants with an increased spread of the flowering schedule. In two of the study years, selection favoured a higher asymmetry of the flowering schedule, and plants with more right‐skewed distributions had higher fruit set and higher proportions of seeds escaping predation. Both fruit set and seed predation increased with an earlier mean flowering, resulting in no net selection on mean flowering date. Synthesis: Our results suggest that phenotypic selection on the spread and shape of flower opening date distributions might be at least as important as selection on the mean flowering date. In a broad sense, this implies that we should consider the entire trait distribution if we aim to understand the evolution of traits that are expressed multiple times within individuals.

Auditory Challenges and Listening Effort in School-Age Children With Autism: Insights From Pupillary Dynamics During Speech-in-Noise Perception.

This study aimed to investigate challenges in speech-in-noise (SiN) processing faced by school-age children with autism spectrum conditions (ASCs) and their impact on listening effort. Participants, including 23 Mandarin-speaking children with ASCs and 19 age-matched neurotypical (NT) peers, underwent sentence recognition tests in both quiet and noisy conditions, with a speech-shaped steady-state noise masker presented at 0-dB signal-to-noise ratio in the noisy condition. Recognition accuracy rates and task-evoked pupil responses were compared to assess behavioral performance and listening effort during auditory tasks. No main effect of group was found on accuracy rates. Instead, significant effects emerged for autistic trait scores, listening conditions, and their interaction, indicating that higher trait scores were associated with poorer performance in noise. Pupillometric data revealed significantly larger and earlier peak dilations, along with more varied pupillary dynamics in the ASC group relative to the NT group, especially under noisy conditions. Importantly, the ASC group's peak dilation in quiet mirrored that of the NT group in noise. However, the ASC group consistently exhibited reduced mean dilations than the NT group. Pupillary responses suggest a different resource allocation pattern in ASCs: An initial sharper and larger dilation may signal an intense, narrowed resource allocation, likely linked to heightened arousal, engagement, and cognitive load, whereas a subsequent faster tail-off may indicate a greater decrease in resource availability and engagement, or a quicker release of arousal and cognitive load. The presence of noise further accentuates this pattern. This highlights the unique SiN processing challenges children with ASCs may face, underscoring the importance of a nuanced, individual-centric approach for interventions and support.

Ecosystem engineers can regulate resource allocation strategies in associated plant species.

Balancing the biomass requirements of different functions for the purpose of population reproduction and persistence can be challenging for alpine plants due to extreme environmental stresses from both above- and below-ground sources. The presence of ecosystem engineers in alpine ecosystems effectively alleviates microenvironmental stresses, hence promoting the survival and growth of other less stress-tolerant species. However, the influence of ecosystem engineers on plant resource allocation strategies remains highly unexplored. In this study, we compared resource allocation strategies, including biomass accumulation, reproductive effort (RE), root fraction (RF), as well as relationships between different functions, among four alpine plant species belonging to Gentianaceae across bare ground, tussock grass-, cushion-, and shrub-engineered microhabitats. Shrub-engineered microhabitats exerted the strongest effects on regulating plant resource allocation patterns, followed by tussock grass- and cushion-engineered microhabitats. Additionally, apart from microhabitats, population background and plant life history also significantly influenced resource allocation strategies. Generally, plants established within engineered microhabitats exhibited higher biomass accumulation, as well as increased flower, leaf and stem production. Furthermore, individuals within engineered microhabitats commonly displayed lower RF, indicating a greater allocation of resources to above-ground functions while reducing allocation to root development. RE of annual plants was significantly higher than that of perennial plants. However, individuals of annual plants within engineered microhabitats showed lower RE compared to their counterparts in bare ground habitats; whereas perennial species demonstrated similar RE between microhabitat types. Moreover, RE was generally independent of plant size in bare-ground habitats but exhibited size-dependency in certain populations for some species within specific engineered microhabitat types. However, size-dependency did exist for absolute reproductive and root biomass allocation in most of the cases examined here. No trade-offs were observed between flower mass and flower number, nor between leaf mass and leaf number. The capacity of ecosystem engineers to regulate resource allocation strategies in associated plants was confirmed. However, the resource allocation patterns resulted synergistically from the ecosystem engineering effects, population environmental backgrounds, and plant life history strategies. In general, such regulations can improve individual survival and reproductive potential, potentially promoting population persistence in challenging alpine environments.

Plasticity in resource allocation of the invasive Phytolacca americana: Balancing growth, reproduction, and defense along urban–rural gradients

In response to varying environments along urban and rural gradients, invasive plants may strategically allocate resources to enhance their invasiveness. However, how invasive plants balance their resources for growth, reproduction, and defense as responses to biotic and abiotic factors across these gradients remain unclear. We conducted field surveys on the growth, reproduction, and herbivory of the invasive species Phytolacca americana across diverse urban and rural habitats. Leaf samples were collected to analyze the nutritional content, primary and secondary metabolites. We found that plant growth rates, specific leaf area, leaf nitrogen content, and concentrations of flavonoids and saponins were higher in urban habitats, while reproduction, herbivory, and carbon-to‑nitrogen ratios were lower than those in rural habitats. We also found a trade-off between growth rate and herbivory, as well as trade-offs among defense traits associated with herbivory (e.g., leaf mass per area, the inverse of leaf nitrogen content, and carbon‑nitrogen ratio) and the production of metabolites associated with abiotic stress tolerance (e.g., soluble sugars, flavonoids, and saponins). As earlier studies showed low levels of genetic diversity within and between populations, our findings suggest that the urban–rural gradient patterns of resource allocation are primarily phenotypic plasticity in response to herbivory in rural areas and abiotic factors in urban areas. Our study sheds light on the mechanisms by which urbanization affects plant invasions and offers insights for the implementation of their management strategies.

Deep Learning-Driven Interference Perceptual Multi-Modulation for Full-Duplex Systems

In this paper, a novel data transmission scheme, interference perceptual multi-modulation (IP-MM), is proposed for full-duplex (FD) systems. In order to unlink the conventional uplink (UL) data transmission using a single modulation and coding scheme (MCS) over the entire assigned UL bandwidth, IP-MM enables the transmission of UL data channels based on multiple MCS levels, where a different MCS level is applied to each subband of UL transmission. In IP-MM, a deep convolutional neural network is used for MCS-level prediction for each UL subband by estimating the potential residual self-interference (SI) according to the downlink (DL) resource allocation pattern. In addition, a subband-based UL transmission procedure is introduced from a specification point of view to enable IP-MM-based UL transmission. The benefits of IP-MM are verified using simulations, and it is observed that IP-MM achieves approximately 20% throughput gain compared to the conventional UL transmission scheme.

Resource endowment and sustainable soil fertility management strategies in maize farming systems in northern Benin

IntroductionManaging soil fertility remains one of the major concerns of smallholder farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). In order to understand the adoption potential of recommended practices to smallholders, this study aimed to characterize the resource availability, allocation and use patterns, and the soil fertility management practices in the maize farming system in northern Benin.MethodsA survey was conducted with 262 households randomly selected across three municipalities from three agro-ecological zones. Focus groups discussions and individual interviews were conducted with the household heads using an interview guide and a structured questionnaire respectively. The main data collected included (a) the socio-economic characteristics of households, (b) the main farm type and their characteristics and (c) the current soil fertility management strategies and the rationale behind.Results and discussionThe main soil fertility practices included the use of mineral fertilizer, manure, and crop residues application to plots. As a general trend, the rates of fertilizers applied by farmers [on average 132 ± 8.5 and 59 ± 5.8 kg ha−1 of Nitrogen-Phosphorus-Potassium (NPK) and urea] were below those recommended or required to ensure optimal maize yields. Five farm types corresponding to different resource endowments or wealth classes were identified. The scarce resource farms owned by the majority of poorer farmers use only small amounts of manure and fertilizer in their fields. Qualitative analysis indicated that farms have different constraints and opportunities to adopt newly proposed soil fertility management recommendations.ConclusionExtension services and decision makers must target specific interventions for appropriation and sustainability of technologies to resource mostly the smallholder farmers.

Patterns of Resource Allocation and Divisional Budgets: The CEO's Strategic Lens Across Various Industries

This paper explores how Chief Executive Officers (CEOs) across various industries adapt their resource allocation and divisional budgeting strategies in response to contemporary business challenges. It aims to shed light on the evolving role of CEOs in steering organizational success through strategic initiatives, highlighting the shift from traditional, efficiency-focused models to flexible, value-driven approaches. By conducting a qualitative analysis of recent literature, the study examines patterns in strategic decision-making, focusing on the balance between operational needs and strategic goals amidst changing market conditions. The research emphasizes the impact of industry-specific factors, such as market volatility and organizational size, on these strategic adaptations. Findings reveal a significant trend towards more adaptable and strategic resource management practices among CEOs, moving beyond short-term operational efficiency to support long-term goals. This shift is evident across different sectors, including healthcare, manufacturing, and e-commerce, though the extent and nature of its implementation vary according to each industry's unique challenges and opportunities. The study underscores the importance of strategic adaptability for organizational resilience and success in a rapidly evolving business landscape.

Effect of Simulated Grazing on Morphological Plasticity and Resource Allocation of Aeluropus lagopoides

Aeluropus lagopoides, a dominant palatable species in various sabkha and coastal regions of Saudi Arabia, can withstand harsh saline environments through phenotypic plasticity. When subjected to grazing, how A. lagopoides adapt phenotypically is currently unknown. There is a breakage in the chain of study on the spatial and temporal expansion strategy of A. lagopoides plants when subjected to different grazing stresses in different saline soil habitats. A grazing experiment was conducted to investigate the phenotypic plasticity and resource allocation pattern response of A. lagopoides in different saline soils. Individual A. lagopoides rhizomes from five saline regions were grown and exposed to varied grazing treatments in the form of clipping, viz; light, moderate, and heavy grazing, as compared to a grazing exclusion control. Our results showed that heavy grazing/clipping significantly decreased the shoot system and above-ground biomass in high-saline region plants in the early season. Plant length, root length, root and shoot biomass, the number of stolons, average stolon length, leaf area, and SLA of A. lagopiodes responded significantly to grazing intensities. A. lagopoides from the Qareenah, Qaseem, and Jizan regions were more tolerant to light grazing than A. lagopoides from the Salwa and Jouf regions. Light grazing showed significantly good re-growth, especially during the late season. Light grazing decreased the synthesis of chlorophyll content. Also, A. lagopiodes reduced the risk caused by reactive oxygen species via the increased accumulation of proline content. Overall, plants adapted to different morphological and physiological strategies to tolerate different levels of grazing intensities by adapting their morphological attributes. Though heavy grazing damages the plant, light and moderate grazing can be allowed to maintain the productivity and economic benefits of sabka habitats where soil conditions are moderately saline.

Variable resource allocation pattern, biased sex-ratio, and extent of sexual dimorphism in subdioecious Hippophae rhamnoides.

Evolutionary maintenance of dioecy is a complex phenomenon and varies by species and underlying pathways. Also, different sexes may exhibit variable resource allocation (RA) patterns among the vegetative and reproductive functions. Such differences are reflected in the extent of sexual dimorphism. Though rarely pursued, investigation on plant species harbouring intermediate sexual phenotypes may reveal useful information on the strategy pertaining to sex-ratios and evolutionary pathways. We studied H. rhamnoides ssp. turkestanica, a subdioecious species with polygamomonoecious (PGM) plants, in western Himalaya. The species naturally inhabits a wide range of habitats ranging from river deltas to hill slopes. These attributes of the species are conducive to test the influence of abiotic factors on sexual dimorphism, and RA strategy among different sexes. The study demonstrates sexual dimorphism in vegetative and reproductive traits. The sexual dimorphism index, aligned the traits like height, number of branches, flower production, and dry-weight of flowers with males while others including fresh-weight of leaves, number of thorns, fruit production were significantly associated with females. The difference in RA pattern is more pronounced in reproductive traits of the male and female plants, while in the PGM plants the traits overlap. In general, habitat conditions did not influence either the extent of sexual dimorphism or RA pattern. However, it seems to influence secondary sex-ratio as females show their significant association with soil moisture. Our findings on sexual dimorphism and RA pattern supports attributes of wind-pollination in the species. The observed extent of sexual dimorphism in the species reiterates limited genomic differences among the sexes and the ongoing evolution of dioecy via monoecy in the species. The dynamics of RA in the species appears to be independent of resource availability in the habitats as the species grows in a resource-limited and extreme environment.

Influence of light, nutrients, and soil moisture on the growth and resource allocation of Arundo donax

AbstractUnderstanding how invasive species respond to changes in abiotic factors and what influences their ability to colonise newly disturbed areas is necessary to predict species expansion, prioritise management efforts, and develop ecological models. We conducted a fully factorial greenhouse experiment using rhizome fragments to examine the effects of four nutrients levels, three soil moisture levels, and two light levels (with five replicates, n = 120) on the growth and resource allocation patterns of Arundo donax, a large‐statured invasive wetland species. We predicted that A. donax's performance‐related traits—traits that directly influence the functionality and fitness of an individual—such as aboveground biomass (AGB), belowground biomass (BGB), net photosynthesis, and average stem height, would be highest under high light, high soil moisture and high nutrient conditions due to the ability of aggressive invasive species to capitalise on greater resource availability. Analyses using general linear mixed‐effects models revealed significant interactions between soil moisture and light. Plants grown in saturated, high light conditions exhibited the highest values for performance‐related traits. However, contrary to predictions, nutrients did not significantly influence these traits. Multivariate analysis of variance demonstrated that nutrients did influence biomass allocation patterns, with plants grown with added nitrogen and phosphorus displaying higher AGB:BGB and stem:leaf ratios. This research highlights A. donax's unique response to nutrient addition and the plasticity of biomass allocation patterns. By understanding how invasive species respond to common abiotic factors, we can better predict their expansion and prioritise management efforts, such as focusing on areas of low overstory shading, while also providing crucial information for ecological model development.

The quick and the fed: Geographical variation in embryonic development and offspring size in a wide‐spread lizard

AbstractBroad geographical distributions that include marked climatic variation may expose populations to distinct selective pressures. Local adaptation to differences in developmental conditions may lead to divergence in embryonic and hatchling traits for populations of oviparous reptiles. Among‐population differences in hatchling size and the duration of development are often observed in lizards with wide and climatically diverse distributions. Variation in hatchling phenotypes can arise from variation in maternal allocation, developmental plasticity or selection acting on embryonic traits. We studied variation in hatchlings of the Australian water dragon (Intellagama lesueurii), comparing traits related to growth and patterns of developmental plasticity. We recorded marked differences in hatchling sizes among populations from different climate types, which did not result from differences in maternal investment or from a plastic response to incubation temperatures. Embryos from southern, temperate populations exhibited shorter incubation times when incubated at cold temperatures but utilized less yolk during development and hatched smaller, with more residual yolk, regardless of incubation treatment. We suggest that these findings represent the first example of among‐population variation in patterns of embryonic resource allocation and a novel mechanism mediating offspring size in reptiles. We further suggest that variation in embryonic resource allocation in I. lesueurii, together with evolutionary changes in reaction norms for developmental rate, evolved as adaptations to seasonal length and conditions associated with a tropical‐temperate gradient.

Characterization of trade-offs between immunity and reproduction in the coral species Astrangia poculata.

Living organisms face ubiquitous pathogenic threats and have consequently evolved immune systems to protect against potential invaders. However, many components of the immune system are physiologically costly to maintain and engage, often drawing resources away from other organismal processes such as growth and reproduction. Evidence from a diversity of systems has demonstrated that organisms use complex resource allocation mechanisms to manage competing needs and optimize fitness. However, understanding of resource allocation patterns is limited across taxa. Cnidarians, which include ecologically important organisms like hard corals, have been historically understudied in the context of resource allocations. Improving understanding of resource allocation-associated trade-offs in cnidarians is critical for understanding future ecological dynamics in the face of rapid environmental change. Here, we characterize trade-offs between constitutive immunity and reproduction in the facultatively symbiotic coral Astrangia poculata. Male colonies underwent ex situ spawning and sperm density was quantified. We then examined the effects of variable symbiont density and energetic budget on physiological traits, including immune activity and reproductive investment. Furthermore, we tested for potential trade-offs between immune activity and reproductive investment. We found limited associations between energetic budget and immune metrics; melanin production was significantly positively associated with carbohydrate concentration. However, we failed to document any associations between immunity and reproductive output which would be indicative of trade-offs, possibly due to experimental limitations. Our results provide a preliminary framework for future studies investigating immune trade-offs in cnidarians.

Energy-Efficient Service-Aware Multi-Connectivity Scheduler for Uplink Multi-Layer Non-Terrestrial Networks

This paper introduces the concept of energy efficiency (EE) in the uplink with the capability of multi-connectivity (MC) in a multi-orbit non-terrestrial network (NTN), where user terminals (UTs) can be simultaneously served by more than one satellite to achieve higher peak throughput at reduced energy consumption. This concept also considers the service classification of the users, so that network dimensioning is performed in order to satisfy the quality of service (QoS) requirement of users. MC can increase throughput, but this entails increased power consumption at user terminal for uplink transmissions. To this end, an energy-efficient service-aware multi-connectivity (EE-SAMC) scheduling algorithm is developed in this paper to improve the EE of uplink communications. EE-SAMC uses available radio resources and propagation information to intelligently define a dynamic resource allocation pattern, that optimally routes traffic so as to reduce the energy consumption at the UT while ensuring QoS is maximized. EE-SAMC is designed based on the formulation of a non-convex combinatorial problem, it is solved in two ways involving firstly an optimization solution and secondly a heuristic approach. The effectiveness of EE-SAMC is compared with random allocation, round robin and heuristic schedulers in terms of EE, throughput and delay; EE-SAMC outperforms all schedulers.

A simulated heat wave—but not herbicide exposure—alters resource investment strategy in an insect

Animals are increasingly exposed to potential stressors related to environmental change, and multiple stressors may alter the dynamics by which animals acquire resources and invest those resources into important life-history traits. Stress may lead to the prioritization of current reproduction to maximize lifetime reproduction (i.e., terminal investment [TI]) or, in contrast, prioritize somatic investment over current reproduction to facilitate future reproductive opportunities (i.e., reproductive restraint [RR]). Tests of the TI and RR hypotheses typically use immune challenges as stressors, and have not been explicitly tested in the context of environmental change even though warming influences resource allocation patterns across taxa. Further, the multiple-stressor framework has been a useful construct to clarify the costs of complex environmental shifts to animals, but it has not been leveraged to understand such effects on investment strategy. Thus, we tested the TI and RR hypotheses by manipulating widespread features of environmental change—glyphosate-based herbicide (GBH; Roundup®) exposure and a simulated heat wave—in the variable field cricket (Gryllus lineaticeps). A simulated heat wave affected the life-history tradeoff between investment into reproduction and soma. Specifically, heat wave prioritized investment into ovary mass over non-reproductive tissue, even after accounting for food consumption, in support of the TI hypothesis. In contrast, GBH exposure did not affect any measured trait, and crickets did not discriminate between tap water and GBH solution during drinking. Therefore, some—but not all—aspects of environmental change may alter resource investment strategies in animals. We encourage continued integration of the multiple-stressor framework and life-history theory to better understand how animals respond to their rapidly changing environments.

Divergent responses of generalist and specialist pollinators to experimental drought: Outcomes for plant reproduction.

Drought is an increasingly important consequence of climate change. Drought often causes plants to alter patterns of resource allocation, which in turn can affect how plants interact with other species. How these altered interactions subsequently influence plant reproductive success remains incompletely understood and may depend on the degree of specialization exhibited by antagonists and mutualists. Specialist pollinators, for example, are dependent on floral resources from their obligate hosts and under drought conditions may thus indiscriminately visit these hosts (at least in certain circumstances). Generalist pollinators, in contrast, may only forage on host plants in good condition, given that they can forage on other plant species. We tested this hypothesis and its consequences for plant reproduction in squash (Cucurbita pepo) grown along an experimental moisture gradient ranging from dry (growth and flowering compromised) to wet conditions. Floral visitation increased with plant soil moisture for generalist honey bees but was independent of plant soil moisture for specialist squash bees. Pollen production increased with plant soil moisture, and fluorescent pigments placed on flowers revealed that pollinators primarily moved pollen from male flowers on well-watered plants to the stigmas of female flowers on well-watered plants. Seed set increased with increasing plant soil moisture but, notably, was higher in bee-pollinated plants compared to plants pollinated by hand with an even mix of pollen from plants grown at either end of the experimental moisture gradient. These results suggest that superior pollen rewards, perhaps combined with selective foraging by generalists, enhanced reproductive success in C. pepo when plant soil moisture was high and more generally illustrate that pollinator behavior may contribute to how drought conditions affect plant reproduction.

Research on Human Resource Allocation Pattern and its Function -- Taking Google as an Example

In the context of the global epidemic, the economic situation is grim and the economic crisis is rife. In order to better cope with the challenges and enhance their competitiveness, enterprises adjust their human resource allocation mode, improve work quality and drive their development. For social and economic management, human resource allocation is to fully and reasonably apply all human resources in the society to social production and economic activities. According to the current economic situation, the importance of human resource allocation has become increasingly prominent. This paper expounds the human resources allocation mode and its function, summarizes the problems and shortcomings, this paper takes the human resources allocation mode as the main research object, optimize the human resources allocation mode.

Cascading effects of seed-stem-individual spatial patterns along a grazing gradient.

Studying the seed trait-stem trait-individual spatial pattern system is helpful for understanding the developmental direction of plant dynamics and populations under grazing disturbance as well as the antagonistic relationship between animals and plants, but few systematic analyses of this spatial pattern system have been carried out. Kobresia humilis is the dominant species in alpine grasslands. We studied K. humilis seed traits and their relationship with K. humilis reproductive individuals, the relationship between reproductive and vegetative stems, and the weights and spatial patterns of reproductive and nonreproductive individuals under four grazing treatments: no grazing (control), light grazing, moderate grazing and heavy grazing. We explored the relationship among seed size and seed number with reproductive stems and vegetative stems along the grazing gradient and assessed the spatial pattern changes between reproductive and nonreproductive individuals. The results showed the following: (1) Seed size increased with increasing grazing intensity, and the coefficient of variation for seed size and seed number in the heavy grazing treatment was greater than 0.6. (2) The structural equation model showed that grazing treatment had a positive effect on seed number, seed size and reproductive stem number and a negative effect on reproductive stem weight. (3) Grazing treatment did not affect the resource allocation to reproductive stems and vegetative stems per unit length of reproductive K. humilis individuals. (4) Compared with the number of reproductive individuals in the no grazing treatment, the number in the heavy grazing treatment decreased significantly, and the negative correlation between reproductive individuals and nonreproductive individuals changed from a full-scale negative correlation to a small-scale negative correlation and a large-scale positive correlation. Our study showed that grazing could activate and change the resource allocation pattern of dominant species in a grassland and have significant positive effects on reproductive stem number, reproductive stem weight, seed number and seed size. Along a grazing intensity gradient, with the increase in distance between reproductive and nonreproductive individuals, the transformation of intraspecific relationships from a negative correlation to a positive correlation is an ecological strategy conducive to population survival.

Evaluation of the policy options to adopt a water-energy-food nexus pattern by farmers: Application of optimization and agent-based models

In recent years, water-scarce regions (WSRs) have faced many challenges in order to achieve sustainable economic development. Sustainable economic development in the agricultural sector of WSRs is possible by paying attention to the water-energy-food nexus (WEFN) concept. WEFN determined using consumption, physical productivity, and economic productivity criteria of water and energy resources. According to the goals of physical and economic productivity of water and energy resources, it will be very difficult to implement WEF nexus patterns in WSRs with severe water resource crisis. The present study is aimed in WSRs to extract the resource allocation pattern based on the goals of the WEFN system using multi-criteria decision making (MCDM) tools and evaluate the cooperative behavior of farmers with this pattern under government’s policy options using an agent-based model (ABM). The results for Doroodzan dam irrigation network as a WSR revealed that the pattern based on WEFN will lead to a 200 and 18 percent increase in physical and economic water productivity and a 156 and 67 percent increase in physical and economic energy productivity compared to the base pattern, but the implementation of this pattern requires 33% more water consumption. Therefore, it is very necessary to water resource management policies such as using modern irrigation technologies under government policy options in order to implement the pattern based on WEFN in WSRs. In this regard, the inflexibility of the government’s policies will prevent the widespread implementation of the pattern based on WEFN and sustainable economic development at the regional level. Also, it can be concluded that the expansion of sustainable patterns in the agricultural sector will not be possible without considering the situation of the region from the point of view of water resources and also the cooperative behavior of the farmers. Finally, the framework of the present study is recommended to achieve the goals of sustainable economic development of the agricultural sector in WSRs.