Residential Solar Photovoltaic Research Articles

Formulation of billing policy for residential scale solar PV systems and its impact in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

Governments worldwide have introduced diverse billing methods and regulations to promote the adoption of photovoltaic (PV) systems, aiming to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. This paper aims to develop a billing policy for installing rooftop PV systems in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia by studying policies implemented to support installing PV systems in leading countries. Initially, the system is evaluated using the tariff predetermined by Saudi Electricity Cogeneration Regulation Authority under three different policies: a Feed-in Tariff (FIT), net metering, and net billing for different sizes of solar systems 10 kW, 15 kW, and 20 kW. The findings suggest a considerable discounted payback period ranging from 14 to 20 years under the net metering framework with the current tariff structure. In contrast, investments under FIT and net billing schemes do not appear to be viable. Thus, a tariff schedule, tailored according to the consumer-preferred payback period, is proposed. For a payback timeframe of 6–10 years, the tariff should range between $0.09–0.06 $/kWh within the FIT scheme. However, in the case of a net billing policy, the tariff should vary between $0.123–0.066 $/kWh. These findings suggest the supremacy of the FIT scheme, particularly if the government determined to use the low tariff policy.

Dynamics of large-scale solar PV adoption feedback effects: A technical, economic, and environmental assessment

Large residential solar photovoltaic (PV) penetration has a compound effect on the grid load reductions, PV hosts’ economic savings, and the achievable environmental benefits, which is not fully understood. This study combines process-based energy balance modeling, life cycle assessment, regression analysis, and stochastic demand simulations to assess the technical, economic, and environmental tradeoffs under increased residential solar PV adoption, using Boston, MA as a testbed. It was found that increased PV adoption may lead to a steeper ramp-up in the grid during winter months, but a flattened peak load curve during summer months, emphasizing the need for seasonal time-of-use rates and energy storage. It also reduces electricity wholesale prices, lowering PV hosts' economic benefits by about $15 million under 100 % adoption. The largest buildings present the highest load reduction (top 5.5 %) and environmental benefits (top 16.6 %), but they are the least cost efficient (top 14.5 %), requiring tradeoff balance.

Stakeholders' awareness of urban form effects on rooftop solar photovoltaic in Ghana: Implications for integrated solar energy and urban planning

Integrating solar energy considerations into urban planning practices, a socio-technical and multi-stakeholder approach known as solar urban planning, is essential for maximizing solar photovoltaic (PV) potential in the built environment. While the need for such an approach is articulated in solar energy studies and urban planning, very few research explore the extent to which key stakeholders critical to this process are aware of the connections between urban form and rooftop solar PV and its implication for solar urban planning. This study examines stakeholders' awareness of the effects of selected urban form attributes on residential rooftop solar PV and its implications for solar urban planning in Ghana. Primary data were collected using surveys and interviews of households, real estate developers, licensed solar home system (SHS) installation companies, and government agencies responsible for energy and urban planning. SHS installation companies affirmed that buildings' roof type and shape, roofing material, the height of neighboring buildings, and the trees' position significantly affect rooftop solar PV installation and performance in Ghana. However, households have a low awareness of how these urban form attributes affect rooftop solar PV. Despite the affirmed effects of urban form on rooftop PV, current planning legislations do not necessitate considering such systems in preparing urban and building plans. A robust institutional collaboration is necessary among urban planning authorities, energy regulators, and real estate developers to develop effective strategies for solar urban planning in Ghana.

Evaluating Prospective Energy Services Demand for Residential Solar Photovoltaic (RSPV) Generated Electricity in Lagos State, Nigeria

Rapid urbanisation is pulling demand for energy services and emission of greenhouse gases (GHG) resulting in energy deficit, climate change and global warming. The ongoing energy crisis and degenerating climate condition demands urgent transformation of the energy system to renewable based from nonrenewable (fossil) based. To meet the growing demand for energy services and simultaneously mitigate the environmental impact of the energy sector, an accurate estimation of the demand for renewable generated electricity is vital to guide the policy makers in planning adequately for the adoption of renewable fuelled electricity generation technology in urban areas. This study evaluated the electricity demand for residential solar photovoltaic (RSPV) technology by potential household adopters of the technology in the metropolitan area of Lagos state, Nigeria. The study adopted quantitative research design with structured questionnaire to solicit information from the respondents. Three hundred and twenty-six (326) responses from the potential adopters were analysed with model for analysis of demand for energy (MADE II) and Pareto tool. The results show that the energy intensity for refrigeration services is 1.06 kWh/hh/day, entertainment services is 0.84 kWh/hh/day, computing services is 0.97 kWh/hh/day, space cooling services is 7.59 kWh/hh/day, ventilation services is 9.05 kWh/hh/day, lighting services is kWh/hh/day, cooking services 2.77 kWh/hh/day, process heating services is 6.43 kWh/hh/day and water pumping is 1.89 kWh/hh/day. The study concluded that the household energy services demand for electricity is 24.43 kWh/hh/day by the potential RSPV technology adopters and the total demand from the solar module panel of 31.59 kWh/hh/day with prospect for improvement on the energy intensity at the same output of energy services. Furtherance to this, the study recommends government intervention with formulation and implementation of dedicated policies on household appliances efficiency standard and also introduce financial schemes to support the replacement of inefficient household appliances with highly efficient ones. Further studies could include other non-common energy services that were not considered in this study. The study could also be conducted in other regions of Nigeria and also investigate the economic feasibility and behavioural acceptability of RSPV technology for effective planning of the national energy system transformation.

From shadows to light: The role of latent networks in mainstreaming solar PV practices

Practice theories have generated interest in sustainability transitions research as a means to study shared expectations, conventions and routines that maintain unsustainable consumption within the dominant regime. However, collective action to change practices, which is crucial for innovation, is seldom examined in practice theory research. This article applies practice theories to conceptualize the nature of collective action in shaping energy practices, using insights from a literature review on residential photovoltaic (PV) production by German citizens. We demonstrate the significance of latent networks, which refer to individuals involved in similar parallel practices, in promoting the adoption of solar power in homes. Our results show that both multi-actor and latent networks contributed to mainstreaming residential solar PV practices. Multi-actor networks encompassed households and various service providers, each integrated within larger latent networks.

Consumers are “trapped” in rooftop solar projects: Analyzing 101 decisions

China has made great efforts to deploy distributed solar photovoltaics. However, concerns have arisen regarding the implementation of associated policies, where some low-income consumers fell into debt after installing solar photovoltaics panels on their rooftops. To understand how and why this dilemma occurs, this study investigates 101 court decisions addressing disputes related to rooftop solar photovoltaics projects. It argues that unfavorable interpretations against consumer's interests, manipulative practices by solar installation companies following specific bank loans, and a piecemeal planning approach are significant attributes. As a result, this study proposes recommendations for further advancing residential solar photovoltaics from the aspects of loan review procedures, the legal framework construction, and the planning approach.

Promoting residential rooftop solar photovoltaics in Indonesia: Net-metering or installation incentives?

The number of rooftop photovoltaic (PV) systems in Indonesia has increased massively following the implementation of the net-metering (NEM) scheme. However, it is still below the target due to high investment costs and low electricity prices. This study employs the System Advisory Model to conduct a techno-economic analysis to determine the viability of 2-kWp rooftop PV systems in Jakarta, Denpasar, and Kupang. The results show that the current levelized cost of energy (LCOE) exceeds the price of electricity. The net present value (NPV), payback period (PBP), and profitability index (PI) range from −975 to −424 USD, 10.3–12.5 years, and 0.72 to 0.88, respectively. These figures suggest that the existing NEM scheme is insufficient to render the rooftop PV system economically viable. However, sensitivity analysis results show that combining a 20 % installation incentive with a 40 % increase in NEM rates made rooftop PV systems more profitable in three cities. Furthermore, a location-based incentive scheme that considers varying solar irradiation levels can enhance the economic attractiveness of rooftop PV systems and foster widespread system adoption in Indonesia.

Climate Change Implications for Optimal Sizing of Residential Rooftop Solar Photovoltaic Systems in Qatar

Climate change poses critical challenges for Qatar’s energy-intensive residential building sector. This study evaluates the impact of projected climate warming on optimizing rooftop solar photovoltaics (PV) for villas. An integrated modelling approach is employed, combining building energy simulation, PV system optimization, and performance assessment under varying climate scenarios. A typical Qatari villa is modelled in DesignBuilder and simulated under the baseline (2002) conditions and the projected years 2016, 2050, and 2100, reflecting incremental warming. Results show the villa’s annual electricity consumption will grow 22% by 2100, with summer peaks escalating to 26% driven by surging cooling demands. Techno-economic optimization in HOMER Pro (version 3.10) verifies a grid-connected rooftop PV system as optimal in all years, with capacity expanding from 7.4 kW to 8.2 kW between 2002 and 2100 to meet rising air conditioning loads. However, as temperatures increase, PV’s energy contribution declines slightly from 18% to 16% due to climate change degrading solar yields. Nonetheless, the modelled PV system maintains strong financial viability, achieving 5–8 years of paybacks across scenarios. This analysis provides empirical evidence of distributed PV’s effectiveness for Qatar’s households amidst escalating cooling consumption. However, maintaining solar mitigation potential requires evolving PV sizing methodologies and incentives to account for declining panel productivity at the country’s peak temperatures exceeding 50 °C. Overall, this study’s integrated framework evaluates residential solar PV systems’ capabilities and appropriate policy evolution under projected climate impacts for the first time in Qatar. The modelling approach and conclusions can inform building codes and pro-solar policies to accelerate adoption for emissions reduction. With villas representing over 100,000 units in Qatar, widespread rooftop PV integration can meaningfully contribute to national sustainability targets if implementation barriers are addressed considering climate change effects.

Techno-economic assessment of small-size residential solar PV + battery systems under different tariff structures in Brazil

This paper proposes a methodology to assess the energy and economic impact of adopting small-scale residential photovoltaic (PV) systems paired with lithium-ion battery energy storage (BESS) systems in single-family homes, under the current energy feed-in legislation. The suggested methodology was applied to a case study of a prosumer unit (PU) in Brazil. Data from energy bills, measured PV generation, BESS behaviour, and energy consumption were analysed to compare different viewpoints and estimate key economic indicators. As a result, the PV + BESS combination increases residential users' energy self-consumption and self-sufficiency, resulting in respective increases of 15 % and 2 %. Under the conventional tariff, adopting the PV + BESS system led to an average 29 % reduction in electricity costs compared to scenarios without PV + BESS. Furthermore, by transitioning to the white tariff mode in conjunction with PV + BESS, the PU achieved a 49 % reduction. This result emphasizes the advantages of time-of-use adoption for PV + BESS consumers. A greater discrepancy between tariff periods enhances the feasibility of storing off-peak energy for use during peak periods. Currently, BESS implementation costs impede competitiveness, with attractive LCOS metrics achieved only at costs below $600.00/kWh and MRAs below 9 %. BESS + PV lowers generation costs compared to off-peak rates, increasing the viability of shared usage. Integrating PV + BESS systems with rate switching significantly diminishes electricity expenses. The substantial BESS implementation cost necessitates a noteworthy rate differential for viability, which could potentially impact non-PV and non-BESS consumers.

Closing the green gap? Changing disparities in residential solar installation and the importance of regional heterogeneity

The push to accelerate the transition to renewable energy sources raises questions about how associated costs and benefits are distributed. The likelihood that individuals and communities benefit from access to solar photovoltaics (PV) may vary systematically, between social groups and across space. The present study leverages high-resolution and uniquely comprehensive data on nearly all residential solar PV installations in New York State to measure disparities (and their trends over time) in PV deployment across three axes: ethno-racial composition, income, and rural-urban status. We identify notable differences in solar PV adoption rates across all three dimensions and show that deployment gaps changed dramatically between 2010 and 2020. White-majority census tracts maintained a substantial advantage in PV adoption early on, but minority-majority tracts narrowed and eventually overtook White-majority tracts in terms of variable-adjusted PV deployment rates in New York. However, PV deployment gaps across income and rural-urban status have largely persisted. Finally, an analysis comparing deployment trends across three regions of New York State reveals that trends in a single region, consisting largely of New York City, account for major shifts in overall disparities. The important implication is that policies and market processes unfolding at the local level critically shape distributional outcomes in PV deployment.

A systematic analysis of stakeholder interaction and the barriers towards upscaling urban residential solar PV: The case of Shanghai, China

Political, economic, and social factors that impede the diffusion of residential solar photovoltaics (RSPV) are at the frontline of academic research in renewable energy development because solar PV has rapidly become cost-benefit effective relative to traditional energy. Using Shanghai for our investigation, this study employed a systematic and stakeholder engagement framework to analyze the political, economic, and social actors and their relationships with the residents' acceptance of solar PV. Our results were based on 20 in-depth interviews and rich secondary qualitative research data. We found that several factors that jointly contributed to poor collaboration among actors for upscaling of RSPV development in Shanghai. These included the poor implementation of RSPV policies from political actors, residents’ distrust of the market players, uncertainties and risks faced by small and medium solar companies, and an individualism-collective dilemma and poor community engagement due to rapid social atomization. The development of RSPV is a systematic project that requires joint efforts and collaborative mechanisms among political, market, and community actors. Community engagement is an indispensable measure to promote collaboration among these key stakeholders for the success of RSPV development.

The assessment of the value of electricity saving and economic benefit to residential solar rooftop PV customer: The case of Thailand

A rise in residential solar rooftop PV (SRPV) has been observed in Thailand because of the decreasing costs of solar photovoltaics (PV) and implementation of incentive programs for SRPV. However, without financial assistance, it is not economically feasible to invest in a SRPV system with Stationary Battery Storage (SBS) due to the high up-front cost of SBS and the low power retail price for household. This study examines the benefit to Thai households with SRPV under different technology regimes, incentives, rate structures, and trading mechanisms such as Peer-to-Peer (P2P), and financial aid programs. It is found that the households who install solar with SBS, or a Battery Electric Vehicle see a minor benefit. Net Energy Metering saves more money than Net Billing (NB) under different retail rate structures and price escalation as well as with different load patterns in pre-COVID19 and during COVID19 conditions. In addition, SRPV can deliver even greater financial return if it is supported by measures, such as a lower loan interest rate and a substantial share of the loan amount. Compared to NB, P2P energy trading is favorable for SRPV that purchase and sell excess solar rooftop energy after self-consumed with the neighboring household.

Machine learning reduces soft costs for residential solar photovoltaics

Further deployment of rooftop solar photovoltaics (PV) hinges on the reduction of soft (non-hardware) costs—now larger and more resistant to reductions than hardware costs. The largest portion of these soft costs is the expenses solar companies incur to acquire new customers. In this study, we demonstrate the value of a shift from significance-based methodologies to prediction-oriented models to better identify PV adopters and reduce soft costs. We employ machine learning to predict PV adopters and non-adopters, and compare its prediction performance with logistic regression, the dominant significance-based method in technology adoption studies. Our results show that machine learning substantially enhances adoption prediction performance: The true positive rate of predicting adopters increased from 66 to 87%, and the true negative rate of predicting non-adopters increased from 75 to 88%. We attribute the enhanced performance to complex variable interactions and nonlinear effects incorporated by machine learning. With more accurate predictions, machine learning is able to reduce customer acquisition costs by 15% ($0.07/Watt) and identify new market opportunities for solar companies to expand and diversify their customer bases. Our research methods and findings provide broader implications for the adoption of similar clean energy technologies and related policy challenges such as market growth and energy inequality.

확산모형을 이용한 주택용 상계 태양광 설비 보급량 예측

Most countries around the world are implementing carbon neutrality to respond to climate disasters. Solar photovoltaic (PV) plays an important role in carbon neutrality because it is easy to install and its cost is rapidly declining. Residential solar PV has the advantage of not requiring investment in transmission and distribution facilities and reducing the maximum load by lowering peak power demand. However, residential solar PV generation is variable and cannot be reliably predicted, causing uncertainty in the power system. Therefore, it is important to accurately forecast the size of residential solar PV capacity in order to prepare countermeasures that can enhance the stability of such power systems from a long-term perspective. This study forecasts the capacity of residential solar PV net metering in South Korea using diffusion models. The Gompertz model provided the best fit for the diffusion pattern of residential solar PV net metering in South Korea, outperforming the Bass and Logistic models. When the Gompertz model was used to predict the residential solar PV net metering capacity over the next 15 years, an increase from 2.1 GW (8.8% of total solar PV) in 2022 to 12.0 GW (15.4% of total solar PV) in 2036 was obtained. Therefore, this study suggests that it is necessary to consider the size and distribution of residential solar PV net metering in power system planning and operation, as it will play a major role in future power systems in South Korea.

Implementing the energy transition: lessons from New Jersey’s residential solar industry

ABSTRACT A desire to shift from fossil fuels to non-carbon-emitting energy sources has become an imperative supported by national, state, and local policies. In the U.S., a diverse array of policies at multiple levels of government have helped the solar industry achieve exponential growth. These advancements, however, are mediated by local implementation processes, which might be expected to have a large impact in the context of U.S. federalism. This paper investigates the effects of two countervailing forces – policy incentives and implementation disincentives – on residential solar adoption in New Jersey. The New Jersey case study includes two complementary analyses designed to illuminate policy incentives and implementation disincentives, respectively. The first is an interrupted time-series analysis that evaluates the effects of federal and statewide renewable energy policies on residential photovoltaic (PV) growth. The second is a set of semi-structured in-depth interviews with solar industry experts, providing implementation insights from the solar industry and indirectly portraying residential customers’ experiences. Results confirm that market-based instruments at the state-level play a crucial role in increasing the relative financial advantage of these systems and, thus, the attraction of residential solar PV to adopters. In addition, the behaviours of future adopters and the valuation of this technology as an investment in the housing market will impact the spread of residential PV systems in the future. Unfortunately, case study findings also confirm that an absence of standardized solar application procedures and outdated interconnection standards is a significant drag on the adoption rate. This highlights a need for policymakers to place greater emphasis on local implementation pathways in solar policy design. Options to achieve this include more robust ex-ante coordination among state and local levels of government and with industry to standardize implementation processes. While U.S. federalism may at times be constraining, our results suggest that even minimal levels of ex-ante coordination can lead to implementation gains that will have a large impact on solar diffusion outcomes.

Neighbourhood-level spatial determinants of residential solar photovoltaic adoption in the Netherlands

This paper examines the neighbourhood-level spatial determinants of residential solar photovoltaic (PV) adoption in the Netherlands. We investigate the roles of place-specificities and spatial interaction effects by utilising high-resolution spatial data on 13,205 Dutch neighbourhoods. Unlike other studies, we use impact measures on the basis of a spatial Durbin model to distinguish between direct and indirect effects of the spatial determinants. We find significant neighbourhood-level spatial interaction effects in residential solar PV adoption. Where there is a spatial dependence, household income, property value, population density, housing type and household type are among the factors that influence residential solar PV adoption.

Current and future prospective for battery controllers of solar PV integrated battery energy storage systems

Solar photovoltaic (PV) microgrids have gained popularity in recent years as a way to improve the stability of intermittent renewable energy generation in systems, both off-grid and on-grid, and to meet the needs of emergency settings during natural catastrophes. Over the last several decades, researchers have been interested in improving the efficiency of photovoltaic (PV) systems. Solar-battery charge controllers based on various algorithms are continuously and intensively employed to improve energy transfer efficiency and reduce charging time. This paper presents state-of-the-art solar photovoltaic (PV) integrated battery energy storage systems (BESS). An overview of and motivations for PV-battery systems is initially introduced, followed by the survey methodology and its contributions. In addition, this study classifies residential solar PV systems and battery charge controllers with their corresponding references in the review structure, which also provides details on battery charger topologies. Subsequently, an analytical review of the PV-Battery charge controller and the failure probability of such systems is discussed to determine the system components that mostly fail and their importance in the system. Finally, recommendation amendments to the existing charge controller that potentially contribute to increasing the system efficiency, reducing the failure probabilities, and reducing the cost are presented as future design concepts for the entire system.

The impact of co-adopting electric vehicles, solar photovoltaics, and battery storage on electricity consumption patterns: Empirical evidence from Arizona

Electric vehicles, residential rooftop solar photovoltaics, and home battery storage contribute to a reliable, resilient, affordable, and clean power grid. To accelerate decarbonization, large-scale deployment of these distributed technologies will be indispensable but cause significant impacts on the power grid in the future. This study provides the first empirical evidence of the impact of co-adopting the three technologies on electricity consumption patterns based on smart meter data of three representative adopters from Arizona. The estimated overall impact of the coadoption on average hourly net load is -0.68 kWh. An intraday consumption transfer is identified. Leveraging the three technologies, consumers reduced electricity consumption from the grid during the day and early evening, increased consumption in the late evening, and exported excess electricity to the grid during the day. We also estimate the decomposed impacts of each adopted technology.

How does residential solar PV system diffusion occur in Australia?-A logistic growth curve modelling approach

Australia is facing the twin problems of energy depletion and environmental pollution. This crisis can be alleviated by effective promotion of solar photovoltaic (PV) system installation. The question is: how does solar PV system diffusion occur in various regions in Australia? This study introduces an innovative five-parameter logistic (5PL) curve to analyse the diffusion of solar PV technology in all postcode areas of Australia. Furthermore, it combines principal component analysis (PCA) and cluster analysis to identify the major area types that have similar diffusion characteristics. The study identifies three main diffusion pathways and their corresponding distribution areas in Australia. The results provide a visual representation of the historical diffusion of residential PV systems in Australia. From a technology diffusion perspective, the results also show how residential solar panel diffusion occurs differently in areas at the postcode level. These findings provide insights on how to reduce regional disparities in solar panel adoption, thus facilitating renewable energy equity and justice.

Grid Parity of Residential Building Rooftop Solar PV in India

Rooftop solar photovoltaic(PV) installation in India have increased in lastdecade because of the flat 40 percent subsidy extended for rooftop solarPV systems (3 kWp and below) by the Indian government under the solarrooftop scheme. From the residential building owner’s perspective, solar PVis competitive when it can produce electricity at a cost less than or equalgrid electricity price, a condition referred as “grid parity”. For assessing gridparity of 3 kWp and 2 kWp residential solar PV system, 15 states capitaland 19 major cities were considered for the RET screen simulation by usingsolar isolation, utility grid tariff, system cost and other economic parameters.3 kWp and 2 kWp rooftop solar PV with and without subsidy scenarioswere considered for simulation using RETscreen software. We estimate thatwithout subsidy no state could achieve grid parity for 2kWp rooftop solarPV plant. However with 3 kWp rooftop solar PV plant only 5 states couldachieve grid parity without subsidy and with government subsidy number ofstates increased to 7, yet wide spread parity for residential rooftop solar PV isstill not achieved. We find that high installation costs, subsidized utility grid supply to low energy consumer and financing rates are major barriers to gridparity