Disaster Research Research Articles

Women, Development, and Flooding Disaster Research in Nigeria: A Scoping Review

The growing threat of disasters caused by climate change, of which flooding is the most prevalent has led to a call for a change in the design of, and roll-out of disaster mitigation and response policies. A more inclusive approach to Disaster Risk Reduction has been advocated with the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction calling for the involvement of women and marginalized groups for more effectiveness and efficiency. The rapidly urbanizing countries of sub-Saharan Africa are particularly vulnerable to the threats and impacts of disasters, including flooding, and women in these countries are differentially vulnerable and marginalized. In response to the call for the inclusion of women in disaster risk management, this scoping review seeks to understand to what extent Nigerian women have been engaged or included in urban flooding research. This review finds that very little research has been conducted on gender and flooding. In addition, 85% of the papers reviewed focus on rural women, while the prevalence and rising threats of flooding in urban areas are given little attention. As urban centers throughout the region are becoming more feminized, a better understanding of urban women’s experiences with flooding will help ensure a more inclusive and effective disaster response.

HOTSEP Analysis to Develop Disaster Research Integrated Book for Vocational Education (Drica) in 21st-Century

This study analyzed Higher-Order Thinking Skills of Environmental Problem (HOTSEP). It was conducted in March 2021. The sample comprised 114 vocational high school students, 66 male and 49 female students from several schools in Jakarta, Indonesia. The data was collected online using Google Form and Microsoft Excel for data analysis. The results showed that the HOTS score with analyzing environmental problems (C4) obtained an average score of 50. The thinking aspect of evaluating environmental problems (C5) obtained an average score of 49. The thinking aspect of making programs to overcome environmental problems (C6) obtained an average score of 47. Therefore, the study showed that the HOTS scores were relatively low since the average score was 51. The results showed that the HOTSEP score on the criticizing environmental problems (C4) obtained an average score of 24. The thinking aspect of environmental problem solving (C5) obtained an average score of 25. Furthermore, the thinking aspect of environmental innovation development (C6) obtained an average score of 23. Therefore, the study showed that the HOTSEP score was poor since the average score was 26. The research results suggest that learning media employed requires an improvement related to disaster mitigation. One media that can be developed is Disaster Research integrated book for Vocational Education (Drica). It can be concluded that the research results generally indicate that the vocational education students remain lacking in the HOTSEP aspect.

Epistemological freedom: activating co-learning and co-production to decolonise knowledge production

PurposeThe purpose of the paper is to challenge and address the limitations of the traditional system of knowledge production that is embedded in disaster and climate change research studies, and research studies in general. It argues that knowledge production in research processes conforms to colonialist thinking or west-inspired approaches. Such a system often results in the omission of crucial information due to a lack of participation, inclusion and diversity in knowledge production.Design/methodology/approachThe paper proposes practices and recommendations to decolonise knowledge production in disaster and climate change research studies, and research studies in general. It provides a brief literature review on the concepts of decolonisation of knowledge and epistemological freedom, and its origins; assesses the need for knowledge decolonisation, emphasising on the integration of local knowledge from grassroots women-led initiatives in instances where disasters and crises are being investigated in vulnerable communities, especially in the Global South; and finally the paper proposes to decolonise knowledge production through activating co-learning and co-production. The practices have been developed from the work of relevant authors in the field and case studies.FindingsThrough a brief literature review on previous discourses on the topic of knowledge decolonisation and analysis of recent case studies on disaster and crisis management and community resilience, the paper finds that there exists a lack of pluralism and inclusion in epistemology which limits the pursuit to obtain the whole truth in the production of knowledge in research studies.Originality/valueThis paper adds to the discussion of decolonisation of knowledge in the field of disaster and climate change research studies, and research processes in general. It provides in-depth analyses of recent case studies of emerging community resilience and local practices that were crucial in the face of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) crisis.

Aiming at a moving target: methodological reflections on the study of politics of citizen-centric governance in post-earthquake Nepal

PurposeThe growing prominence of disaster research has also prompted vibrant discussions about the motivation and ethical conduct of disaster researchers. Yet, the individual researchers' aspirations and aims, together with the challenging and changing circumstances under which one undertakes disaster research have received relatively scant attention. Drawing on the author’s personal experience of becoming a disaster researcher under the unexpected humanitarian crisis following the 2015 Nepal earthquakes, this paper seeks to contribute to the debates surrounding the role of reflexivity and ethical sensitivity in doing disaster research under the climate of uncertainty.Design/methodology/approachThe paper draws on the author’s reflections and vignettes to highlight the author’s experience of becoming a disaster researcher, and my trajectory of navigating the complex terrain of fieldwork.FindingsThe paper underscores how the process of becoming a disaster researcher was closely intertwined with and shaped by my concerns and care for the disaster-affected communities. The paper argues that doing contextually relevant and ethically sensitive research is not a static target. It demands constant reflexivity and improvisation, in response to the unpredictable real-world conditions of disasters. Instead of aiming to tame such uncertainty, disaster researchers may benefit from appreciating and embracing uncertainty as a major facet of its epistemological distinctiveness.Originality/valueThe paper contributes to the ongoing efforts in advancing methodological reflection and innovation in disaster research. In so doing, the paper is expected to aid early-career researchers who are often faced with ethical and practical dilemmas of doing fieldwork.

Understanding the impacts of post-disaster relocation on family dynamics and resilience

Purpose The purpose of this study is to arrive at a conceptual roadmap that may be used to analyze the impacts of post-disaster relocation on a family’s dynamics and how this, in turn, affects their resilience to future disasters. Existing literature shows that the role of the family as a social unit is often overlooked in disaster research. Ultimately, this paper seeks to elevate the place of the family and its internal dynamics as a vital determinant of family resilience in a post-disaster relocation setting. Design/methodology/approach The study is a result of a systematic literature review of four interrelated topics, namely, families in disasters; post-disaster relocation; disaster resilience and family resilience. Findings The literature review resulted in an exploration of the experiences of families amidst post-disaster relocation. Such findings were linked towards potential impacts on family dynamics, which then resulted in the study’s proposed roadmap. Originality/value The study is a novel attempt at coming up with a conceptual framework that may guide future scholars in determining the effects of family dynamics on a family’s overall disaster resilience amid post-disaster relocation. It is hoped that the use of such a framework will guide policymakers in crafting institutional reforms that take into account family cohesion in disaster relocation efforts.

Towards the Next Stage of the Journal of Disaster Research

In the year 2021, the Journal of Disaster Research (JDR) had two memorable events: Professor MURAKAMI Suminao, one of the founders of the Journal, resigned as the editor-in-chief, and in February the JDR marked its hundredth issue, counting from Vol.1 No.1. These events gave us, the next generation of the editorial board members, the resolve to reinvent the JDR for its leap forward into the next stage. We have accomplished the following two projects this year. Establishment of MURAKAMI Suminao Award for Disaster Research and the JDR annual awards To acknowledge Professor MURAKAMI’s significant contributions to the JDR and disaster research in general, we rename the JDR Award to the MURAKAMI Suminao Award for Disaster Research. While we present this award to the person who has made the most significant contribution to disaster research as a whole, we hereby establish three more specific JDR annual awards: the JDR Award for the Most Cited Paper, the JDR Award for the Most Downloaded Article, and the JDR Award for the Most Contributory Reviewer. Applying the Creative Commons license The JDR introduced the Creative Commons license in August 2021, thereby becoming a fully open-access journal conforming to the international standard. This project makes all articles in the JDR easier to reuse and cite in academic activities. Now the JDR is widely known not only in Japan but also all across Asia, and its readership is spreading through North America and Europe. We will continue to strive for the further development of the JDR as an international journal dedicated to comprehensive disaster research.

Presenting the Seventh JDR Award

On behalf of the Editorial Board of the Journal of Disaster Research (JDR), it is my great honor and pleasure to present the 2021 JDR Award to Prof. and Dr. Suminao Murakami, or “Murakami Sensei.” Murakami Sensei has served as the founding Editor-in-Chief of the JDR for the past 16 years, since 2006. The JDR has now published more than 100 issues, becoming recognized as the leading Japan-based, international online peer-review journal on disaster risk reduction for all hazards except war, and Murakami Sensei has always been its greatest contributor. The Editorial Board reluctantly respected Murakami Sensei’s decision to resign from the position of Editor-in-Chief, but it has unanimously agreed to rename the JDR Award to the MURAKAMI Suminao Award for Disaster Research from 2022 on. The Journal of Disaster Research will continue its best efforts “to reduce the horrors of disaster through information,” as Murakami Sensei and Takiguchi Sensei wrote in the Message from the Editors-in-Chief in the first issue of the JDR.

동아시아(한⋅중) 전통사회의 재해 DB 구축과 의의

This academic research presentation is an experiment to find out a priori how the disaster DB prepared by this research team can be utilized. Although a full-scale disaster DB has not yet been established, it can be said to be an effort to find out the significance by presenting some of the internal discussions. This academic research presentation was made up of five topics. These topics will serve as a starting point for this research team to find a methodology for future disaster research. Therefore, the future research prospects of this research team can be summarized as follows： First, we will trace the homogeneity and heterogeneity of the East Asian disaster DB. Disaster-related records vary according to times and regions. For example, there are very few records of the ancient Korean society, but related records gradually increase through the Goryeo and Joseon dynasties. This is a difference caused by whether there are records, not the occurrence of a disaster. Also, there are quantitative differences as well as differences in perception and expression in the records of China and the Korean Peninsula in the traditional era. In order to accurately understand the quantitative and qualitative differences in records, it is necessary to review data to check the trends and meanings of long-term disaster phenomena and to summarize terms and cases. In addition to short-term and local phenomena, disasters occur repeatedly over a long period of time, so it is necessary to systematically summarize, compare, and review them within a long-term view. Second, promotion of interdisciplinary exchanges and joint research with various adjacent disciplines. Comprehensive summary of disaster data and standardization of terms can help all disciplines related to disasters. In order to understand disaster data in various academic fields, it is necessary to understand the records of traditional societies and their scalability. In addition to the occurrence and damage of disaster data, the political and social context of disaster data is linked to population and decrease in arable land, decline in agricultural productivity, and infectious diseases. Therefore, disaster is a research topic that connects from political and socioeconomic issues to the fields of natural science and medicine. Third, development of new research methodologies. As disaster-related research spans the fields of natural sciences such as astronomy, meteorology, geology, and ecology, a new research direction can be suggested through interdisciplinary exchanges. In previous studies, we traced changes in the natural environment of traditional societies and the resulting socioeconomic changes through limited topics such as solar eclipse, lunar eclipse, comet, drought, flood, and abnormal temperature. However, it is now necessary to strive to develop a research methodology that can create a virtuous cycle between disciplines as a new field of study as well as individual disciplines. Comprehensive summarization of data on traditional societies and definition of terminology should be performed through group research. Furthermore, if various disciplines related to natural disasters have a structural research system and approach them from multiple perspectives, a new research methodology can be created. In addition, providing our society with a traditional understanding of changes in climate and environment today will arouse public interest as well as emerging researchers.

재해 DB 이용의 실례 : 숙종대 『승정원일기』와 『숙종실록』의 재이 기록 비교 －‘일식’과 ‘지진’을 중심으로－

This study tried to review reliability of historical records by comparing records of solar eclipse·earthquakes in 『Sukjong-Sillok』 and 『Seungjeongwon-Ilgi』 in the reign of Sukjong of Joseon which are the basic historical records of disaster research in the 17th century. In conclusion, comparing the rates of inclusion and concordance of the solar eclipse· earthquake records in both of the books with each other, it has found that the rates of inclusion and concordance of the disaster records are higher than those of the solar eclipse records. However, comparing 『Sukjong-Sillok』 and the 『Seungjeongwon-Ilgi』 in the reign of Sukjong of Joseon concretely, it cannot be concldued that frequency of disasters is reliable because disasters of the times are not exactly be recorded in both of them. Examining the abnormal disaster records which are consistent in the 『Sukjong -Sillok』 and the 『Seungjeongwon-Ilgi』 in the reign of Sukjong of Joseon concretely, there are various errors including confusion of dates of abnormal disasters and the report date and mistakes in writing the areas where they occurred. On the other hand, the detailed records have found to be the cases that the 『Sukjong-Sillok』 is rather earlier than the 『Seungjeongwon-Ilgi』 in the reign of Sukjong of Joseon because the records of the 『Sukjong-Sillok』 referred to and edited various materials with the 『Seungjeongwon-Ilgi』 in the reign of Sukjong of Joseon as already examined. Based on the above contents, it is concluded that it is difficult to measure frequency of abnormal disasters in the abnormal disaster records of the Joseon Dynasty and assume to be able to find periodicity of climate and disasters of the times or grasp the real state by calculating the long-term statistics based on it. The reliable abnormal disaster records include the facts that the abnormal disasters occurred, aspects of the abnormal disasters, and response to them. And it is thought to make nature of the people of the times or an short-term effect of the disasters on politics, society, and economy subjects of study. On the other hand, it will also be possible to examine aspects of the disasters by collecting various materials such as the research trend which recently and newly appeared and correcting accuracy and reliability of the historical records.

The importance of context-relevant feminist perspectives in disaster studies. The case of a research on forest fires with the Atikamekw First Nation

PurposeMy research is a study of forest fires that occurred near the Atikamekw community of Wemotaci (Quebec, Canada). This article focuses on the gendered aspects of two forest fire situations experienced by the people of Wemotaci, as I realized during fieldwork that men and women had different experiences and roles during the fires that did not seem to be valued the same. As a result, I decided to mobilize Indigenous feminist theories to understand the entanglement of multiple oppressions especially colonialism and the patriarchy in disaster situations.Design/methodology/approachI used interviews, participant observation and focus-groups during several stays in Wemotaci. I drew on methodologies developed by Indigenous researchers who aim to decolonize research. In this approach, I built respectful relationships with participants, conscious that I was part of the network I was studying.FindingsThis research reveals the importance in disaster research to adapt our methodology to the participants realities while factoring our positionality in. More specifically, I show how the use of an Indigenous feminist perspective allows me to understand how patriarchal-colonialism manifests during forest fire situations intertwined with traditional Atikamekw gender roles. This understanding makes it possible to see ways of managing and studying disasters that challenge systemic oppressions by rethinking the notion of vulnerability and making space for Indigenous people agency, knowledge and experiences.Originality/valueThe use of a feminist framework in this male-dominated field is still innovative, especially mobilizing a feminist approach that is consistent with the participants' realities while acknowledging the researcher's positionality which translate here in the use of Indigenous feminist theories.

Environmental-Community Psychology in the Disaster Research: The Importance of Social-Spatial Connections

The psychosocial literature in the context of socio-natural disasters mainly focuses on the psychological consequences of the affected people, while ignoring the psychosocial environmental factors. Here, we emphasize the relevance of community environmental psychology to analyze the subjective aspects of the relationship with the place and the community relations of the localities affected by disasters. Therefore, we propose a conceptual framework of the categories of community psychology and environmental psychology, which are related to the study of the social spatial connection in what we call socio-natural disasters. This view is illustrated by the results of a study using a hybrid approach that describes how people living in communities affected by earthquakes, tsunamis and volcanic eruptions in four locations in Chile. In a non-probabilistic convenience sample (n = 628), the responses to the scale of location attachment, location identity, residence satisfaction, community awareness and citizen participation were analyzed, as well as the narration of 17 focus groups (n = 117) on the meaning of public space construction. The conclusion is that the combination of environmental and community psychology expands the understanding of the elements of power and territorial disputes, and highlights the psychosocial defects in post disaster reconstruction solutions.

A systematic review of 20 years of crisis and disaster research: Trends and progress

AbstractThe field of crisis and disaster studies has proliferated over the past two decades. Attention is bound to grow further as the world negotiates the prolonged challenges of the Covid‐19 pandemic. In this review, we provide an overview of the main foci, methods, and research designs employed in the crisis and disaster research fields in the period of 2001–2020. The review documents that the focus and methods used have not changed much over time. Single case studies and exploratory research prevail, the focus has shifted from preparedness to response, and methodological diversity is limited, but gradually increasing. Future challenges are to understand transboundary crisis management and creeping crises. Advancing the field calls for our community to put more effort in drawing lessons beyond the single case to uncover comparable and universal patterns that connect between events or phases, which help to theorize the multifaceted nature of crisis and disaster management.

The reflective research diary: a tool for more ethical and engaged disaster research

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to highlight how keeping a reflective research journal can help disaster researchers to work in a more ethical and engaged way.Design/methodology/approachThe author analyses the reflective research diary to illustrate how keeping it has helped the author, a white, non-Indigenous researcher, navigate British academia whilst trying to plan a collaborative project with Indigenous peoples during the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic.FindingsThe author draws out some of the ways that academic institutions can undermine ethical research practice through opaque structures and by incentivising pressuring early-career researchers (ECRs) to conduct fieldwork in dangerous times. The author demonstrates ways the rpeers and author have tried to push against these structures, noting that this is not always possible and that their efforts are always limited without institutional support or change.Originality/valueMany ECRs and PhD students have written reflective accounts about the ethical challenges they have faced during fieldwork. In this article, the author adds to this by building on literature in disaster studies and positing how ethical and engaged research can be conducted within British (colonial) institutions.

Toward an Integrated Disaster Management Approach: How Artificial Intelligence Can Boost Disaster Management

Technical and methodological enhancement of hazards and disaster research is identified as a critical question in disaster management. Artificial intelligence (AI) applications, such as tracking and mapping, geospatial analysis, remote sensing techniques, robotics, drone technology, machine learning, telecom and network services, accident and hot spot analysis, smart city urban planning, transportation planning, and environmental impact analysis, are the technological components of societal change, having significant implications for research on the societal response to hazards and disasters. Social science researchers have used various technologies and methods to examine hazards and disasters through disciplinary, multidisciplinary, and interdisciplinary lenses. They have employed both quantitative and qualitative data collection and data analysis strategies. This study provides an overview of the current applications of AI in disaster management during its four phases and how AI is vital to all disaster management phases, leading to a faster, more concise, equipped response. Integrating a geographic information system (GIS) and remote sensing (RS) into disaster management enables higher planning, analysis, situational awareness, and recovery operations. GIS and RS are commonly recognized as key support tools for disaster management. Visualization capabilities, satellite images, and artificial intelligence analysis can assist governments in making quick decisions after natural disasters.

A crisis volunteer ‘sleeper cell’: An emergent, extending and expanding disaster response organisation

AbstractUnderstanding the diverse organisational forms of crisis volunteerism is crucial for enabling volunteers to play a more prominent role in disaster response. One of the most widely used analytical tools is the Disaster Research Center typology that identifies ‘established’, ‘expanding’, ‘extending’ and ‘emergent’ groups. However, not all disaster response volunteer groups necessarily fit within this typology. We examine the case of the Student Volunteer Army (SVA) in Aotearoa New Zealand, which has been considered a potential blueprint for youth‐led post‐disaster civic action. Examining a decade of successive disaster responses, we argue the SVA has come to simultaneously exhibit characteristics associated with ‘expanding’, ‘extending’ and ‘repeat emergent’ disaster response organisations. Drawing on in‐depth interviews with people involved with the SVA over its 10 years, we identify dualities in the SVA's tasks and structure that enable it to incorporate both new and existing or routine aspects into its disaster response efforts. In spanning these categories, we propose the SVA has become an ‘expectant’ crisis volunteer organisation—what one interviewee described as a crisis volunteer ‘sleeper cell’. Our discussion considers the possibilities and tensions within this distinct form of organisation.

Dismantling power asymmetries in disaster and emergency management research: Another argument for the application of critical theory

AbstractRecently there has been a renewed call for research that seeks to understand the experiences of historically marginalized groups as a means of addressing inequities in governmental treatment and service provision. Although this call has been issued across all of the social sciences, its manifestation in the realm of disaster and emergency management has been limited based on the discipline's lack of use of critical methods within research designs. We argue that this is not necessarily a byproduct of a lack of interest in the experiences of minority populations or addressing inequity, but due a lack of understanding on how to use critical theory as a framework for research design in emergency and disaster management. As such, this conceptual paper offers insight into the need and value of critical theory as a means of structuring research. To aid the practices of other researchers, we offer two potential methods among many, critical ethnography and storytelling, as options for approaching critical research in emergency and disaster management.

Decolonising knowledge production in disaster management: a feminist perspective

PurposeThis paper focuses on how feminist research seeks to integrate the inclusion of women in society for them to be active participants in disaster management, and goes on to prove how crucial it is for disaster research to collaborate with feminist research to arrive at a cohesive, interwoven, interdisciplinary field and methodology, while at the same time giving the agency in the hands of local agents for them to bring about change through traditional methods interwoven with broader methodologies. To hand over the process to local agents would result in decolonisation of knowledge production and implementation.Design/methodology/approachThe paper was written using secondary sources, mainly in the form of books, journal articles and news articles. Reports by international organisations were used to augment data and other theoretical frameworks and references in the paper. The secondary sources were selected keeping in view one of the primary objectives of the paper, namely “decolonising knowledge production”. Analysis by postcolonial authors from the global South has been included. Research and literature based in local contexts form an important part of the sources consulted throughout this paper. The ongoing COVID-19 pandemic has been used as a case study to highlight how disasters are still “gendered”; it opens up space for further research on the topic.FindingsEven though women are increasingly recognised as agents of positive change in prevention, mitigation and post-disaster efforts, very little is done at the policy and implementation levels to include their experiences and benefit from them. There is an urgent need for systemic, gender-aware changes at socio-economic and political levels so that hazards may be prevented from turning into disasters by reducing the vulnerability of populations.Originality/valueThe importance of this research lies in its interdisciplinary approach and the integration of three fields of study disaster management, feminist/gender studies and decolonising knowledge production. The attempt is to analyse the interdependence of these fields of study to understand the lacunae in planning and implementation of disaster management policies, and to pave the way for further research by way of this integration.

Study on debris flow risk monitoring and Early Warning in Nujiang Prefecture, Yunnan Province, China

Debris flow is the mainly the geological disasters in Nujiang Prefecture, while precipitation is the trigger of it, how to implement debris flow forecast based on precipitation monitoring data or forecast data is a hot issue in current debris flow disaster research field. Because of the special geomorphology in Nujiang Prefecture, due to the influence of human activities, geological disasters occur frequently, severely affect the local economic development. As a demonstration area of geological disaster monitoring and early warning in Yunnan Province, to build a well-developed geological disaster warning system, it is very important to spread it to other parts of Yunnan province. Based on the analysis of the current situation of geological disasters in Nujiang Prefecture, adopt appropriate monitoring method and calculation method to select the primary sites for debris flow monitoring and early warning in the Nu River basin for research.

A Comparative Analysis of Disaster Research Trends Using Topic Modeling and Network Analysis

This study aims to analyze differences in domestic and international disaster research trends. We first performed topic modeling on 20,477 papers published in three domestic and 12 international journals over the last 21 years (2000-2020) and then visualized the trends. Based on the extracted topics and keywords, we analyzed keyword networks using Gephi. Research in domestic journals mainly revolved around natural disasters like earthquakes, fire, and flooding. In contrast, international journals spotlighted policy-based topics such as disaster governance and community resilience. Meanwhile, globally, building and civil engineering research has shrunk in recent five years (we refer to this as a cold topic). On the other hand, in the past five years, fire and flood research has appeared more frequently in domestic journals, while international journals have presented more articles on community resilience, risk perception, and behavior (we refer to this as a hot topic). Results of this research can provide suggestions about the directions domestic disaster research should develop in the future.

Disaster conversations: intersecting perspectives on cross-cultural disaster research

PurposeThis paper aims to demonstrate the importance of conversation among disaster studies researchers who may be positioned at times and to varying degrees as both insiders and outsiders in relation to the contexts in which they work. Three key questions are explored: how we identify with and relate to people in our study areas, who we do research for and what this means for knowledge creation and research practice.Design/methodology/approachPrompted by the Power Prestige and Forgotten Values manifesto (2019), the authors conversed with one another by email and video call, asking questions that triggered reflection. The emerging themes informed the key questions and the structure of the paper. The authors write with three individual voices to highlight the element of dialogue and our different experiences.FindingsSharing in depth with other researchers from different cultural and disciplinary backgrounds created space to both listen and find a voice. Emerging themes were positionality, how knowledge is used and implications for research practice. Researchers are part of a living system with the potential to serve, exploit or damage. Knowledge is generated at multiple scales, and we can act as a bridge between people and policymakers, using networks.Practical implicationsThe authors remain open and unbiased to “new” local/contextual knowledge, adopting the attitude of a learner. Knowledge creation should focus on pragmatic outcomes such as informing emergency planning.Originality/valueA novel dialogical approach is used to demonstrate the value of conversation among researchers from different backgrounds that enables them to question and challenge each other in a supportive environment. This leads to deeper understanding of our role as cross-cultural researchers and reveals unifying questions and implications for research practice.