Counseling Psychology Research Research Articles

A neuroscience agenda for counseling psychology research.

Recent advances in the field of neuroscience have dramatically changed our understanding of brain-behavior relationships. In this article, we illustrate how neuroscience can provide a conceptual and methodological framework to understand our clients within a transdiagnostic developmental perspective. We provide directions for integrating neuroscience into future process and outcome research. We present examples on how neuroscience can be integrated into researching the effects of contextual counseling interventions. We posit that interpersonal and environmental factors, such as neurotoxic factors (e.g., emotional neglect, stress), positive neurodevelopmental factors (e.g., nurturing and caring, environmental enrichment), and therapeutic interventions influence psychological processes (executive control, behavioral flexibility, reinforcement learning and approach motivation, emotional expression and regulation, self-representation and theory of mind). These psychological processes influence brain networks (attention, motivational, emotional regulation, social cognition), which influence cognitive, social, emotional, identity, and vocational development.

Future of counseling psychology research

The author offers a critique on current counseling psychology research from her perspective as a US counseling psychology researcher and editor. She notes that unless something happens to change the trajectory, future US counseling psychology research will be open to the same criticisms. She summarizes counseling psychology values and argues that counseling psychology research reflects those values. She then identifies five ways that counseling psychology could be different in the future by: building theory-based research, embracing diversity of populations, research questions and methodologies, informing (and being informed) by other psychological disciplines, and informing policy and practice.

The mentorship of undergraduate students in counselling psychology research

In recent years, there has been an increased interest in engaging undergraduate students in psychology research through a mentorship relationship with psychology faculty members. For students, faculty members, and universities committed to undergraduate research mentorship, the potential rewards may be considerable. Yet, the mentorship of undergraduates in research is not without significant challenges. This article examines the benefits and challenges of mentoring undergraduate students in research, both generally and in the specific discipline of counselling psychology. Suggestions for promoting research mentorship relationships between faculty and undergraduate students in counselling psychology and overcoming obstacles are discussed.

Research Paper Where do counselling psychologists based in the UK disseminate their research? A systematic review

AimResearch is frequently cited as core to counselling psychology. Yet we know little about where counselling psychologists publish their own findings. The present study aims to answer the following two research questions: (1) Where do UK-based counselling psychologists disseminate their research? (2) To what extent do counselling psychologists disseminate their research in British Psychological Society outlets?MethodA systematic review examining research by UK-based counselling psychologists published in journals directly relevant to counselling psychology between January 2010 and December 2012. Counselling psychologists’ individual publication lists were examined for research disseminated in additional specialist journals. Finally, two case studies of research active counselling psychologists were completed to gain a qualitative picture of counselling psychology dissemination.ResultsThe review elicited 43 research articles by UK-based counselling psychologists in the last three years. Publication lists uncovered a further 24 research studies from specialist journals, making a total of 67 studies, completed by 40 counselling psychologists. The majority of articles were in Counselling and Psychotherapy ResearchandCounselling Psychology Review. The case studies both demonstrated the importance of overall attitudes towards research to dissemination.ConclusionAlthough the aim of the present study was to gain a picture of where counselling psychology research is disseminated, the limited volume of research seems to lead inevitably back to the debate on what the future of research in counselling psychology should look like, with mixed views on its importance for the field.

Assessing the utility of the willingness/prototype model in predicting help-seeking decisions.

Prior research on professional psychological help-seeking behavior has operated on the assumption that the decision to seek help is based on intentional and reasoned processes. However, research on the dual-process prototype/willingness model (PWM; Gerrard, Gibbons, Houlihan, Stock, & Pomery, 2008) suggests health-related decisions may also involve social reaction processes that influence one's spontaneous willingness (rather than planned intention) to seek help, given conducive circumstances. The present study used structural equation modeling to evaluate the ability of these 2 information-processing pathways (i.e., the reasoned pathway and the social reaction pathway) to predict help-seeking decisions among 182 college students currently experiencing clinical levels of psychological distress. Results indicated that when both pathways were modeled simultaneously, only the social reaction pathway independently accounted for significant variance in help-seeking decisions. These findings argue for the utility of the PWM framework in the context of professional psychological help seeking and hold implications for future counseling psychology research, prevention, and practice.

Further development of the temporal model of control.

The temporal model of control (Frazier, Berman, & Steward, 2001) posits that different temporal aspects of control (i.e., past, present, and future) have markedly different relations with adjustment and need to be clearly distinguished from each other. The Perceived Control over Stressful Events Scale (PCOSES; Frazier, Keenan, et al., 2011) was recently developed to assess these different aspects of control and to advance understanding of the role of perceived control in adjustment to stressful life events. The goals of the 2 studies presented here were to expand the temporal model of control by developing a new subscale of the PCOSES and to gather additional evidence regarding the temporal model. In Study 1, we developed a new future likelihood subscale and found evidence for the internal consistency, test-retest reliability, and construct validity of its scores in a sample of undergraduate students (N = 201). In Study 2, we confirmed the 4-factor structure of the PCOSES with the new future likelihood subscale using confirmatory factor analysis in another sample of undergraduates (N = 1,084). Study 2 also provided additional evidence, consistent with the temporal model, that the PCOSES subscales were differentially related to distress and other forms of adjustment (e.g., physical health) and that present control and future likelihood were associated with less event-related distress after controlling for 4 known correlates of distress (e.g., social support). Implications for counseling psychology research and practice are discussed.

Trainee Prize Award Winner Practice-based research and counselling psychology: A critical review and proposal

Content and FocusThis narrative literature review critically considers the relationship between practice-based research and counselling psychology. Its starting-point is contexts where gaps between psychotherapy research and practice have been identified. Developments in practice-based research, and the extent to which counselling psychology appears engaged in these, are then explored. Contexts in which practice-based research is conducted are considered, with particular focus on the practice-research network. The challenges associated with practice-research networks, in particular, the issue of practitioner involvement, are highlighted. These issues, relating both to counselling psychology’s engagement in practice-based research, and practitioners’ engagement in practice-research networks, suggest an exploration of the role of practitioner research training. Empirical literature relating to current counselling psychology research training programmes is reviewed. Recently, in the US and in Europe, a model of ‘practice-based research training’ has emerged as the next generation of practice-research network. Practice-based research training, as its name implies, involves the close integration of the activities of clinical practice, research and training. Examples of practice-based research training initiatives are outlined.ConclusionThis paper aims to highlight the importance and relevance of practice-based research to counselling psychology in the UK and beyond. Practice-based research training is proposed as a highly promising paradigm for counselling psychology, with potential to ameliorate the gaps, deficits and challenges reported in this review.

African American Men’s Beliefs About Mental Illness, Perceptions of Stigma, and Help-Seeking Barriers

Little is known about African American men’s beliefs about mental illness. A descriptive qualitative study, using the common sense model (CSM), examined African American men’s beliefs about mental illness, perceptions of stigma associated with mental illness, and barriers to help-seeking. A total of 17 community-dwelling African American men participated in individual interviews. Dimensional analysis guided by the CSM showed most of the men identified mental illness causal factors consistent with the biopsychosocial model of mental disorders. They believed mental illness is a chronic disorder having negative consequences and reported experiencing barriers to help seeking. In contrast with previous studies, most men in the present study did not perceive stigma associated with mental illness and did not identify stigma as a barrier to help seeking. They were open to help seeking, were optimistic about professional treatment, encouraged others to seek treatment, and expressed strong interest in mental health research. Implications for counseling psychology research and practice are discussed.

Handling Item-Level Missing Data

The topic of missing data has been receiving increasing attention, with calls to apply advanced methods of handling missingness to counseling psychology research. The present study sought to assess whether advanced methods of handling item-level missing data performed equivalently to simpler methods in designs similar to those counseling psychologists typically engage in. Results of an initial preliminary analysis, an analysis using real-world data, and a series of simulation studies were used in the present investigation. Results indicated that available case analysis, mean substitution, and multiple imputation had similar results across low levels of missing data, though in data with higher levels of missing data and other problems (e.g., small sample size or scales with weak internal reliability) mean substitution produced inflation of correlation coefficients among items. The present results support the use of available case analysis when dealing with low-level item-level missingness.

Broadening Sources of Dignity and Affirmation in Work and Relationship

This article builds on assertions in Richardson's (2012, this issue) Major Contribution on counseling for work and relationship. In this reaction, I expand on the relevance and potential of the counseling for work and relationship perspective to enrich the field of counseling psychology. My comments focus on three considerations to further extend the cultural relevance of Richardson's work and relationship perspective: (1) broadening sources of dignity, (2) centering knowledge of marginalized communities, and (3) promoting psychologists' critical consciousness. Richardson's perspective holds great promise for being a guiding heuristic to inform counseling psychology research, theory, and practice.

2011 Society of Counseling Psychology Presidential Address

Within a system of societal inequities, privilege consists of unearned advantages that are conferred on individuals based on membership or assumed membership in a dominant group. This article describes the relationship between privilege and oppression, dimensions of privilege, characteristics of privilege, costs of privilege, and resistance to awareness of privilege. Understanding of privilege can enhance counseling psychology practice, research, training, and professional organizations. The article concludes with recommendations for exploring privilege and a vision for systemic change.

The identity crisis in trainee counselling psychology research

Content and FocusIn 2009, the threshold of registration for counselling psychologists in the UK was set at doctoral level, meaning that henceforth trainees in the field will generally be expected to produce a piece of doctoral - level research in order to qualify. Uncertainties and debates around counselling psychology’s identity, distinctiveness, and contribution have affected research produced by trainees, to the extent that doctoral candidates are often not meeting the doctoral criteria of extending the forefront of the discipline and being at the cutting edge of professional practice, as set out in the Framework for Higher Education in England and Wales.ConclusionsThe authors present a list of traps derived from their experience of supervising and examining doctoral research into which trainees, supervisees and examiners may fall in creating that body of research, and suggest ways of ensuring that trainee research work truly extends the forefront of and contributes to the practice of counselling psychology.

The power of multiple methods and evidence sources: Raising the profile of Canadian counselling psychology research.

In counselling psychology, research and practice are viewed as mutually informative, and Canadian counselling psychologists conduct research in a wide range of areas, utilizing a wide range of research methods. However, there are few Canadian publications that give prominence to counselling psychology scholarly work. Over the past decade, two trends have become more prominent in the practice of counselling psychology: evidence-based practice and outcome-focused intervention. Traditionally, empirical evidence for the efficacy of practice interventions has come from randomized controlled trials. This fails to reflect the diversity of methods and practice that Canadian counselling psychologists utilize. To address this discrepancy, in this article we provide some alternate ways for obtaining empirical support for the predictive efficacy of counselling interventions. We conclude by addressing some challenges currently facing counselling psychologists in Canada (i.e., publication venues, funding for research, the connection between research and practice, preparation of students) and describing some ways for raising the profile of counselling psychology research and practice in Canada. Keywords: Canadian counselling psychology research, evidence-based practice, research challenges, multiple methods research Research and practice are viewed as mutually informative and counselling psychologists conduct research in a wide range of areas, including those of the counselling relationship and other psychotherapeutic processes, the multicultural dimensions of psychology, and the roles of work and mental health in optimal functioning. Canadian counselling psychologists are especially concerned with culturally appropriate methods suitable for investigating both ernie and etic perspectives on human behaviour, and promote the use of research methods drawn from diverse epistemological perspectives, including innovative developments in qualitative and quantitative research. (Bedi et al., 20 11, p. 130) The preceding quotation, drawn from the comprehensive definition of counselling psychology adopted by the Canadian Psychological Association (CPA) in 2009, encapsulates the current state of scholarly practice in Canada, and hints at several issues that are confronting Canadian counselling psychology researchers today. In this article, we provide an in-depth discussion of three of these issues: (a) the diversity of methodologies that are employed by Canadian counselling psychology researchers, (b) the importance of connecting research and practice when considering the meaning of research evidence in a counselling psychology perspective, and (c) challenges associated with raising the profile of counselling psychology in Canada. Directions that we believe to be important for the discipline to pursue in the future are also discussed. First, however, it is important to obtain an understanding of the current state of research in our discipline. Canadian counselling psychologists have been engaged in conducting high quality research even before counselling psychology was established as a section within the Canadian Psychological Association 25 years ago. Counselling psychologists in Canada have contributed substantially to the literature on a wide range of subjects related to human development, psychological functioning, and practice, and have gained international renown in numerous areas, including research on career development (e.g., Cochran, 1997; Young et al, 2010), counselling processes (e.g., Bedi & Horvath, 2004; Horvath, & Luborsky, 1993), and immigration/ cultural contexts (e.g., Arthur & McMahon, 2005; McCormick, 1998; Samuda & Lewis, 1999). Moreover, the values that guide the definition of counselling psychology are evident in the research directions undertaken by counselling psychologists in Canada. Although researchers are engaged in examining the full range of phenomena that could be considered within the purview of counselling psychology, previous authors have identified several areas of particular strength for Canadian counselling psychology research. …

Canadian counselling psychologists' contributions to applied psychology.

The goal of this paper is to draw attention to the contributions of Canadian counselling psychologists in three key areas central to the discipline: (a) multiculturalism, social justice, and advocacy; (b) health, wellness, and prevention, and (c) career psychology. Accordingly, we have situated our discussion within a historical framework of the discipline followed by a discussion of the Canadian context, definitions, and specific contributions. Finally, we offer a summary of the strengths and current challenges faced by Canadian counselling psychologists. Keywords: counselling psychology, multiculturalism, health, career In this article we highlight the unique contributions of Canadian counselling psychology to the broader field of applied psychology. To accomplish this, we focus primarily on works authored by Canadian counselling psychologists. In particular, we begin by providing a brief overview of multiculturalism, social justice, and advocacy, wherein we discuss the unique Canadian context within which the discipline of counselling psychology resides. As well, we review the literature on three populations that Canadian counselling psychologists have studied, namely aboriginal peoples, immigrants, and lesbian, gay, bisexual, and trans (LGBT) people. We follow this review with a discussion of the multicultural competency literature and the emerging social justice paradigm in the discipline. In keeping with the multicultural framework presented in the first section, we provide a discussion of the vast health-related research conducted by Canadian counsellors and counselling psychologists, and identify their unique contributions. In particular, we categorise these works under the headings of health, wellness, and prevention. To ensure clarity, we offer our current definitions of these three headings. This section is followed by a discussion of the occupation, vocation, and career development literature, wherein we reflect upon the evolution of these areas within the context of career and counselling psychology in Canada. Specifically, we offer current definitions for widely used terms in this domain of the field. In addition, we offer our conceptualisation of career development as psychological transition. Next, to conclude, we briefly discuss the methodological frameworks used in all of these areas of research. Finally, we offer our summary of the strengths and current challenges faced by Canadian counselling psychologists doing all of this important work. Multiculturalism, Social Justice, and Advocacy We begin our overview in the areas of multiculturalism, social justice, and advocacy in Canadian counselling psychology noting that, historically, the discipline of counselling psychology, and the multicultural movement therein, was founded in the United States (Young & Nicol, 2007). As a result, Canadian counselling psychologists have largely relied on the United States' infrastructure, including, but not limited to, American publication outlets (e.g., Journal of Counseling Psychology). Thus, to highlight Canadian counselling psychology research, we will both refer to the foundational American work from which this research emanated as well as the body of scholarship Canadian authors have published both in Canada and the United States. Nevertheless, Canadian counselling psychology has an approach to diversity and multiculturalism that is distinct from that of its American counterparts (Lalande, 2004). In fact, Canada is historically and increasingly a culturally diverse nation with a longstanding policy of multiculturalism, which encourages individuals to maintain their cultural backgrounds while sharing in the common Canadian experience (Berry, 1984). In fact, Canada's first official policy pertaining to multiculturalism dates back to the early 1970s. The Official Languages Act and, later, the Multiculturalism Within a Bilingual Framework were initiated in response both to French Canadians' demand for equal status in Canada and to officially recognise British, French, and other ethnic groups in Canada (Esses & Gardner, 1996). …

Counseling-Related Research in Counseling Psychology: Creating Bricks, Not Edifices

Three counseling psychology colleagues (Lichtenberg, 2011; Mallinckrodt, 2011; Murdock, 2011 [all this issue]) provide differing perspectives about the findings from our target article (Scheel et al., 2011) of the decline of published counseling-related research in our major journals. In this rejoinder we respond to each author’s viewpoints concerning the decline.We reiterate our explanations for the decline, which include (a) stringent and narrowly defined criteria for publication, (b) elimination of analogue research from publication, (c) fewer mentors of process and outcome research, (d) declining interest in counseling-related research, and (e) difficulties in gaining access to counseling-related data.We offer a metaphor for the current state of research in counseling psychology of creating a confusing pile of bricks, not building edifices, and suggest it is time to create specialized journal outlets in counseling psychology to focus and connect counseling-related research with other important contexts of our field.

Multilevel modeling: Overview and applications to research in counseling psychology.

Multilevel modeling (MLM) is rapidly becoming the standard method of analyzing nested data, for example, data from students within multiple schools, data on multiple clients seen by a smaller number of therapists, and even longitudinal data. Although MLM analyses are likely to increase in frequency in counseling psychology research, many readers of counseling psychology journals have had only limited exposure to MLM concepts. This paper provides an overview of MLM that blends mathematical concepts with examples drawn from counseling psychology. This tutorial is intended to be a first step in learning about MLM; readers are referred to other sources for more advanced explorations of MLM. In addition to being a tutorial for understanding and perhaps even conducting MLM analyses, this paper reviews recent research in counseling psychology that has adopted a multilevel framework, and it provides ideas for MLM approaches to future research in counseling psychology.

Content analysis of acculturation research in counseling and counseling psychology: A 22-year review.

The authors conducted a 22-year (1988–2009) content analysis of quantitative empirical research that included acculturation and/or enculturation as a study variable(s). A total of 138 studies in 134 articles were systematically evaluated from 5 major American Psychological Association and American Counseling Association journals in counseling and counseling psychology, including Journal of Counseling Psychology, The Counseling Psychologist, Journal of Counseling and Development, Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, and Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology. To guide the analysis, the authors conceptualized acculturation/enculturation as a “bilinear” (i.e., developing cultural orientations to both majority and ethnic cultures) and “multidimensional” (i.e., across multiple areas such as behaviors, values, identity, and knowledge) cultural socialization process that occurs in interaction with “social contexts” (e.g., home, school, work, West Coast, Midwest). Findings include the patterns and trends of acculturation/enculturation research in (a) conceptualization and use of acculturation/enculturation variable(s), (b) research designs (e.g., sample characteristics, instruments, data collection, and analysis methods), (c) content areas, and (d) changes in total publications and trends over time. Additionally, meta-analyses were conducted on the relationship of acculturation/enculturation and a few key variables of mental health, adjustment, and well-being. Major findings and directions for future research are discussed.

Supplemental Material for Content Analysis of Acculturation Research in Counseling and Counseling Psychology: A 22-Year Review

Supplemental Material for Content Analysis of Acculturation Research in Counseling and Counseling Psychology: A 22-Year Review

Dilemmas in counselling psychology research

In this article, we reflect on some key dilemmas in counselling psychology research in the current context of proliferation of research agendas, stakeholders and other interested parties. Our focus is on the challenges faced by the novice researcher who is often expected to begin research with only a brief training. We offer a pragmatic approach to the often thorny issue of methodological choice, and encourage researchers and research supervisors to give due focus on the research process. Finally, we re-visit the question of the stance of the researcher.

Best practices for missing data management in counseling psychology.

This article urges counseling psychology researchers to recognize and report how missing data are handled, because consumers of research cannot accurately interpret findings without knowing the amount and pattern of missing data or the strategies that were used to handle those data. Patterns of missing data are reviewed, and some of the common strategies for dealing with them are described. The authors provide an illustration in which data were simulated and evaluate 3 methods of handling missing data: mean substitution, multiple imputation, and full information maximum likelihood. Results suggest that mean substitution is a poor method for handling missing data, whereas both multiple imputation and full information maximum likelihood are recommended alternatives to this approach. The authors suggest that researchers fully consider and report the amount and pattern of missing data and the strategy for handling those data in counseling psychology research and that editors advise researchers of this expectation.