Republic Of Zaire Research Articles

THE INTERNATIONAL LEGAL RESPONSIBILITY OF A HOST STATE FOR THE DESTRUCTION OF FOREIGN INVESTMENT LOCATED IN ITS TERRITORY ICSID: Award, Individual Opinion and Declaration in American Manufacturing & Trading Incorporated v Republic of Zaire 36 ILM 1531 (19

In recent years on the international stage, it has become very common practice for developing countries, eager to attract the flow of private foreign direct investment capital into their economies, to conclude Bilateral Investment Treaties (BITs) with the developed capital-exporting countries. Recent studies have estimated that, since the 1980s, well in excess of 900 such treaties have been concluded. This note examines the international rights and duties of the contracting parties to one such treaty which was concluded between the United States of America and the then Republic of Zaire, now known as the Democratic Republic of Zaire. It discusses the nature of the international legal responsibility which Zaire as a host state owes foreign nationals and their corporations which invest in her territory under both customary and conventional international law. It is firmly concluded that host states such as the Republic of Zaire clearly act in breach of their international legal responsibilities when they fail to put in place the necessary measures and environment for the protection and security of foreign nationals, their investments, and properties located in the territory of the host state. The note further states that in this area of public inter-national law, it is generally agreed that there is an international minimum standard which applies and a host state cannot rely on its own municipal law and practice which falls below the standard of international law.

The Arbitration between American Manufacturing & Trading Inc. and The Republic of Zaire

The Arbitration between American Manufacturing & Trading Inc. and The Republic of Zaire

L’Afrique centrale francophone entre au XXIe siècle: Citoyens et États, nations, régions face au monde

This special issue is the successor to Volume 18 Number 1 of the Canadian Journal of African Studies, published in 1984 under the title, “État indépendant du Congo, Congo belge, République démocratique du Congo, République du Zaïre?” The title of that special issue devoted to the political and social crisis in the Republic of Zaire ended with a question mark, implicitly asking: What next for Republic of Zaire? The present special issue offers a reply, one nobody expected fifteen years ago. At least symbolically, the country has recovered its identity as an independent contemporary polity, the Democratic Republic of Congo. Many authors in this issue argue that forty years of independence were mainly a time of violence, destruction, and pillaging. Ilunga Kabongo suggests that the global crises was so deep in the mid-1990s that people would vote for anyone able to restore normal life, the return of coloniser included. Once a regional power, the Congo of today is a toy in hands of its neighbours, some of them being very small countries such as Rwanda which is deeply resented by the Congolese. The circle of violence seems to have engulfed local society, starting from the 1990 massacre of university students on the Lubumbashi campus. Even if, for the first time in a century, the war in and over the Congo is a regional African affair, it is difficult to rejoice as it is more the result the lack of interest from the world powers than the proof of Central African political independence. The issue is organised in the manner allowing the reader to look first at the regional situation, mainly that of the French-speaking countries. Given the importance of Uganda and of Museveni, both as a political and military local power and as a model of a new leader, an analysis of his autobiography by Ron Kassimir is included. As often as it was possible, the voice of social scientists working and living in the region is heard. In little more than three years, between the time this issue was initiated in late 1996 and the time of its publication, many of them were forced into exile. It is an important characteristic of the present day situation. In addition to social science analyses, some local voices are included in order to help readers to grasp local perceptions and local efforts to understand the ongoing life, to find a way out. As far as Congolese social scientists are concerned, we have publish articles of scholars belonging to three generations: those who were mainly educated abroad and came to national universities in the early 1970s; those who were mainly educated at local universities and who came to teaching and research in the 1980s; those who were educated in the 1990s, partially locally and partially abroad. It is important to note that many of those scholars were in the meantime forced to expatriate. The comparison of their understanding of what is going on can help us to appreciate Congolese social thought. One central fact emerges, more from the search for peace and comments of local urban intellectuals than from scholarly essays. Today, while the borders of the Congo are disregarded by various national armies and foreign intervention forces, while local markets depend more on foreign exchange than on local currency, while the country is de facto divided into four more or less autonomous parts, ordinary people feel Congolese and refuse partition as well as secession. Should one conclude that in the deepest crises of its twentieth-century political history a nation is born, that it is born despite the demise of political institutions?

Animals and mushrooms consumed by bonobos (Pan paniscus): New records from lilungu (Ikela), Zaire

We list the animal species, mushrooms and honey, which are consumed by bonobos (Pan paniscus)in the Ikela region (Lilungu), Republic of Zaire, and compare these data with those obtained from other populations of bonobos: Lomako, Yalosidi, and Wamba. Lilungu bonobos consume earthworms more regularly than bonobos do at other localities. They also eat larvae, termites, and ants, but they probably do not consume invertebrates as regularly as chimpanzees do. Lilungu bonobos ate a squirrel and a chiropteran. We report our detailed observations of bonobo foraging, feeding and manipulating foods, including washing some items and complicated handling operations. We note intra- and intergroup differences in the consumption of specific foods and in the way they are handled by the females.

Observations on the meat-eating behavior of wild bonobos (Pan paniscus) at Wamba, Republic of Zaire

Meat-eating behavior of wild bonobos (Pan paniscus) was witnessed on two occasions at Wamba, Republic of Zaire. Only flying squirrels were observed to be eaten by the bonobos. Several bonobos gathered around the possessor of the meat and showed interest in the meat on all occasions. Begging behavior was noted on one of the two occasions, but the possessor of the meat ignored it. No sharing of meat was seen on either occasion. The exclusive targets of hunting by bonobos are apparently small mammals, such as flying squirrels and infant duikers, since evidence of meat eating by wild bonobos, which have been studied for more than fifteen years, has been restricted to these mammals. The bonobos at Wamba may have a specialized “prey image”, as in the case of the chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) of the Tai forest, and certain medium-sized or small mammals may not conform to this image.

Male-male relationships among wild bonobos (Pan paniscus) at Wamba, Republic of Zaire

Male-male relationships among wild bonobos (Pan paniscus) in two adjacent unitgroups (E1 and E2 groups), which were formed by division of the E group, were studied at Wamba, in the Central Zaire Basin, by analyzing the proximity and social interactions among males. Dominant-subordinate relationships between a male-male dyad were easily recognized from the directions of individual agonistic interactions. Male bonobos rarely joined forces in aggression. Clear differences in social status existed between adult and adolescent male bonobos in both groups, as reported in the case of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). The presence of mothers in the unit-group greatly influenced the dominant-subordinate relationships among males through strong mother-son bonds in both groups. However, the extent of the mother-son bonds differed between the groups. Males in the E2 group participated more frequently in agonistic or affinitive interactions than did males in the E1 group. Males in the E1 group were divided spatially into several clusters, while there were cohesive relationships among the adult males in the E2 group. The difference in intensities of mother-son bonds between the groups may be explained by the distribution of males at the time of the division of the E group. Differences in male-male relationships between bonobos and chimpanzees seem to be related to differences in intra- and inter-unit-group competition among males between the two species. Male chimpanzees may achieve coexistence by manipulating ambivalent relationships that are caused by intra- and inter-unit-group competition among them, while male bonobos may achieve coexistence by decreasing intra- and inter-unit-group competition among them.

Chromosome Counts in Psophocarpus

Somatic chromosome counts are presented for four previously uncounted species of Psophocarpus (Leguminosae: Papilionoideae) from material collected in the Republic of Zaire and Ghana. The basic chromosome number is 2x = 2n = 18 for the species Psophocarpus grandiflorus, P. lancifolius, P. lecomtei, and P. palustris, and these counts are consistent with previously published counts for P. scandens and the cultivated winged bean, P. tetragonolobus.

Utilization patterns of a marsh grassland within the tropical rain forest by the bonobos (Pan paniscus) of Yalosidi, Republic of Zaire

The bonobos of Yalosidi, Ikela zone, near the southeastern limit of the range of this species, make regular visits to a marsh grassland known locally as Iyoko (or Yoku) within the tropical rain forest. They come to the marsh to feed on the fibrous vegetative organs of particular species of aquatic or amphibious herbs and grasses, especially those of the families Alismataceae and Cyperaceae. During fixed point observations at Iyoko between September 1975 and January 1976, seasonal changes were recognized in the party size, attendance rate, and arrival time of the bonobos, while no conspicuous change was observed in the composition and phenology of their food plants. The size of the bonobo parties appeared to be an important factor in determining the duration of stay at the marsh per visit. Throughout the study period with the exception of January, they intensively utilized a particular portion of Iyoko, in which their preferred food was scattered. Iyoko was also utilized frequently as a stable feeding place by other large forest herbivores such as elephants, buffalos, bongos, sitatungas, and duikers. In contrast, various species of cercopithecid monkeys commonly seen in the surrounding forest were never observed to enter Iyoko for foraging. This suggests a comprehensive use of the habitat by the Yalosidi bonobos compared with the more limited ecological niches of other sympatric non-human primates.

Interspecific interactions between wild pygmy chimpanzees (Pan paniscus) and red colobus (Colobus badius)

Interspecific interactions accompanied by physical contacts between wild pygmy chimpanzees (Pan paniscus) and red colobus (Colobus badius) were observed on three occasions at Wamba, Republic of Zaire. In all cases, the red colobus initiated the interactions by approaching the pygmy chimpanzees. Most of the pygmy chimpanzees, which were within 5 m of the red colobus, were juveniles or infants but the adult male pygmy chimpanzees never showed any interest in the red colobus. The red colobus groomed the chimpanzees in two cases, but the latter never groomed the former. No true aggressive interactions were observed between the two species. The lack of any evidence of hunting of red colobus through longitudinal studies of the pygmy chimpanzees of Wamba, together with the present observations, suggests that red colobus are probably not targets of hunting by the pygmy chimpanzees.

Grouping patterns of wild pygmy chimpanzees (Pan paniscus) observed at a marsh grassland amidst the tropical rain forest of Yalosidi, Republic of Zaïre

Fixed point observation to ascertain the grouping patterns of wild pygmy chimpanzees was carried out at a marsh grassland known locally as Iyoko amidst the tropical rain forest of Yalosidi, Republic of Zaire. The chimpanzees were seen alone or in parties consisting of up to 32 individuals. The mean size of parties which arrived at Iyoko was 7.9 (N=67), although the modal party size was 2–5. The majority (76%) of all observed parties including those that reformed after joining/parting while staying at Iyoko (N=96) was of the mixed type, i.e., consisting of adult male(s), adult female(s), and dependent individual(s). There was a tendency for parties to be composed of approximately equal numbers of adult males and females. All “social” activities such as sexual behavior and branch-dragging displays were recorded only in mixed parties consisting of more than ten individuals. The joining of parties of pygmy chimpanzees after arriving separately at Iyoko was seen 13 times and the parting of those before departing from Iyoko occurred seven times in total. In contrast, antagonistic encounters between two parties were recorded twice. These observations suggest that the joining/parting between parties is an intra-unit-group phenomenon while antagonistic encounters between parties are inter-unit-group interactions. It was assumed that at least two such unit-groups of pygmy chimpanzees consisting of 80–90 individuals in total utilized Iyoko without intermingling with each other. A comparison on grouping patterns among three pygmy chimpanzee populations (Yalosidi, Wamba, and Lomako) indicates that in terms of basic social organization they show many similarities except for the mean unit-group size, the mean party size, and the modal party size. Perhaps differences in the unit-group size were simply reflected as a whole in the differences of the mean party size as well as the modal party size observed across the three populations.

Sexual swelling, receptivity, and grouping of wild pygmy chimpanzee females at Wamba, Zaïre

The sexual swelling and copulatory behavior of ten pygmy chimpanzee (Pan paniscus) females in a wild group were studied at Wamba, Republic of Zaire. Since the maximum size of the sexual skin revealed great individual variations depending on age and adolescent females showed little cyclic fluctuation in size, the sexual swelling was measured according to its firmness which periodically fluctuated in all age classes. The duration of maximum swelling and the cycle length were longer inP. paniscus than inP. troglodytes. Although pregnant females and those with newborn infants were sexually inactive, females with infants older than 3 years copulated as frequently as those without dependent infants. Contrary to previous reports on the sexuality ofP. paniscus, copulation was mostly restricted to the maximum swelling phase. All females were usually found in a large mixed party containing both sexes and offspring, regardless of their sexual receptivity.

Blindness in a Zairian city.

A random sample of residents of the city of Kananga, Zaire, showed a prevalence of bilateral blindness of 0.090% ± 0.088%. The prevalence of unilateral blindness was 0.767% ± 0.472%. Bilateral blindness occurred mainly in persons over age 45 years, while unilateral blindness was found in persons of all ages. The major causes of blindness appeared to be glaucoma, corneal scarring, trauma, and cataract. The city of Kananga is the administrative and commercial headquarters of the West Kasai Region of the Republic of Zaire. The population of the city proper was 338,000 in 1981, according to government estimates. The countryside around Kananga is wooded savannah cut by rivers, the largest being the Lulua, which passes a few kilometers west of the city. Many Kananga families raise some of their food, either in the gullies and valleys of the city itself or in fields outside the city. The principal employers are

An ecological study of the pygmy chimpanzees (Pan paniscus) of Yalosidi, Republic of Zaire

The pygmy chimpanzees of Yalosidi, near the southeastern limit of the range of this species, differ in group size, food habit, nesting behavior, response to humans, etc., from those of other localities (Wamba, Lomako, and Lake Tumba). It is inferred that the pygmy chimpanzee has a wide range of ecological variation. A comprehensive use of the habitat was characteristic of the Yalosidi pygmy chimpanzees. Every stratum of every vegetation type in their habitat was used by them for feeding, resting, or sleeping. The wide ecological niche of pygmy chimpanzees probably permits their survival in competition with other nonhuman primates of Yalosidi, which are more agile but confined to more limited niches.

Language and education policy in the multilingual city of Bukavu

The aim of this paper is to provide the reader with a profile of the linguistic and cultural diversity in Bukavu. Given the scant amount of information that is available on the language situation in the Republic of Zaire, an evaluation is first made of the language policy that has been followed in that country over the past 20 years and its impact on the overall educational system is assessed. The second part of the paper contains a preliminary account of the functions of the respective mother tongues (indigenous languages) as opposed to Swahili (a national language) and French in Bukavu. It is argued that the introduction of French as the medium of education creates an artificial dichotomy within the overall population and that this social cleavage could be countered by revised policy with regard to instruction in French. This conclusion would seem to be borne out by the results of the Communicativity Index as applied to a sample of the population of Bukavu

Preliminary observations on the feeding behavior ofPan paniscus in the lomako forest of central Zaïre

The feeding behavior and ecology ofPan paniscus was studied over a seven-month period in Equateur, Republic of Zaire, during 1974–1975. Additional data were gathered during four weeks in 1979.Pan paniscus was found to be primarily frugivorous but bonobo foods also consist of leaves, flowers, pith, invertebrates and small mammals.

Hero and Chief: Epic Literature from among the Banyanga (Zaire Republic)

Hero and Chief: Epic Literature from among the Banyanga (Zaire Republic)

Hero and Chief: Epic Literature from the Banyanga (Zaire Republic)

Hero and Chief: Epic Literature from the Banyanga (Zaire Republic)

Locomotor behavior of Pan paniscus in Zaire

AbstractThe locomotor behavior of Pan paniscus was studied over a four‐week period in Equateur, Republic of Zaire. Bonobos were found to be both arboreal and terrestrial in their daily activities. In the trees adult bonobos are basically quadrupedal, but they also have significant components of armswinging, diving, leaping, and bipedalism in their locomotor repertoire.

Social behavior of wild pygmy chimpanzees ( Pan paniscus) of Wamba: A preliminary report

The author studied wild pygmy chimpanzees ( Pan paniscus) for about eight months on two separate expeditions between 1975 and 1977, in the study area located at Wamba, Zone de Djolu, in the Republic of Zaire. Most of this paper is based on data obtained through observing the pygmy chimpanzees in their natural surroundings. However, some of them were provisioned and frequently visited the feeding area. Some portion of the data on groupings and food sharing were gathered there. Pygmy chimpanzees groupings, although similar to the common chimpanzee groupings, have larger temporary associations that are almost exclusively bisexual. At least in some greeting contexts, they exhibit patterns of behavior distinctly different from the common chimpanzee. A preliminary investigation of their social interactions revealed strong bonds between males and females, and high female sociability, in contrast to the strong male bonds and female unsociability seen among common chimpanzees.

Hero and Chief. Epic Literature from the Banyanga Zaire Republic

Hero and Chief. Epic Literature from the Banyanga Zaire Republic