Reptile Medicine Research Articles

On the significance of aspartate aminotransferase and creatine kinase in wild reptile health studies.

In reptile medicine, the enzymes aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and creatine kinase (CK) have been used in clinical diagnostics, where CK is considered an enzyme specific to muscle cell damage, while AST is a nonspecific enzyme that is mainly produced in the liver and muscle. When many native reptiles are sampled, it is evident that there are important differences between species and individuals belonging to the same species, making the AST and CK ranges very wide. The minimum and maximum values, variations and standard deviations were extracted for each enzyme from 17 wild reptile studies, revealing high variation and a wide range of variation for each species. AST and CK must be interpreted with caution in wild reptiles since there appears to be an important amount of individual and specific variation due to the muscular origin of these enzymes, and such variations tell us that there are considerable differences between individuals, physiological characteristics or sampling methods; thus, there is no apparent value derived from these kinds of studies on the utility of AST for evaluating liver damage, but the measurement of AST and CK can be useful for reptile health assessments or any manipulative study since they can eventually be used as indicators or potential biomarkers for restraint techniques or holding time.

First report of melanophoroma in Salvator merianae

Cutaneous neoplasms have been described in the class Reptilia, and many of them are related to the inadequate management of these animals in captivity. In Brazil, there are few reports of cutaneous neoplasms in Iguana iguana, but no reported cases in Salvator merianae. Therefore, the objective of this work was to report a case of a melanophoroma diagnosed in a Salvator merianae. A tegu with a skin nodule located in the dorsal region, close to the right scapula, measuring 1 cm, in diameter, blackish, elevated, firm in consistency, well defined, non-ulcerated and non-adherent, was surgically removed and sent to histopathology analysis, witch revel melanophoroma. The animal in this report had a follow up for eight months after the procedure, and was discharged without signs of other skin nodules. The present report seeks to add to the literature on reptile medicine by describing a histopathological diagnosis of melanophoroma in Salvator merianae, in addition to the clinical-surgical treatment and its respective clinical follow-up.

Peculiarities of the some nematodoses course in turtles and tortoises under conditions of keeping in terrariums

The article presents the results of studying the course of some nematodoses in turtles and tortoises kept in terrariums. Helminth infections account for 35 % of all parasitic diseases of reptiles and are a significant danger, especially after wintering and for weakened individuals. The purpose of the work is to establish the helminth fauna of turtles and clinical testing of the topical application of an anthelmintic on a lipophilic basis. Research methods are coprological, statistical. The greatest extensiveness and intensity of invasion were found in nematodes Tachygonetria spp. Wedi, 1862 (family Oxyuridae) and Angusticaecum spp. Baylis, 1920 (family Ascaridae). Identified pathogens under the conditions of wintering in terrariums and after it are able to cause manifested forms of the disease in connection with the stress experienced by turtles. Invasion of Tachigonetria spp. manifested by gastrointestinal disorders: diarrhea, regurgitation of feed, weakness. Parasitism of Angusticaecum spp. characterized in addition to disorders of the digestive system by signs of respiratory pathology: shortness of breath of the expiratory type, secretion of serous and serous-purulent exudate, snoring, coughing. The highest intensity of invasion by both genera of nematodes was found in the spring, in the period after wintering, and the lowest – in the summer, in the season of the hottest weather. During a clinical trial of the use of various anthelmintics and different ways of administering the drug, it was established that Panacur orally and Profender topically have high intensive efficacy, however, 100 % extensive efficacy was not found in both drugs. Topical application of Profender on a lipophilic basis showed better results of intensity, especially against Angusticaecum spp., than enteral administration of Panacur. High, but incomplete intensity effectiveness of both drugs against Tachigonetria spp. is explained by the extraordinary spread of the causative agent's eggs in the environment, their pronounced resistance to extreme environmental conditions, commensalism of nematodes. Preparations on a lipophilic basis for parenteral (topical) use have prospects for use in reptile veterinary medicine.

Establishment of reference intervals for plasma protein electrophoresis and comparison of biochemical and protein electrophoresis evaluation of albumin in central bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps).

The aim of this study is to develop a reference interval for plasma protein electrophoresis for wild free-roaming central bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps). This will assist the veterinarian in diagnosing and monitoring diseases in wild and captive animals. The study group consisted of 29 wild central bearded dragons of which 22 were males and 7 were females. The plasma samples were obtained from animals in a previous study and were stored frozen at -20°C for 2-3 years before analysis. Plasma protein electrophoresis was performed on 100 uL of plasma. The data were evaluated for the difference between reproductively active females and pooled males with non-reproductively active females as well as the difference between biochemical and protein electrophoresis albumin. Biochemical albumin was found to be significantly higher than electrophoresis albumin in all animals, with a mild proportional bias present. Plasma protein electrophoresis identified albumin, α - 1 and 2, β - 1 and 2 and γ fractions. The reproductively active females in this study exhibited results that were distinct from pooled males and non-reproductively active females. This study provides a reference interval for plasma protein electrophoresis in central bearded dragons that can be used as a tool for health and disease monitoring and diagnosis. The importance of the use of method and sex/season appropriate reference intervals in reptile medicine is confirmed in this study.

Review of Mader’s Reptile and Amphibian Medicine and Surgery, third edition.

Review of Mader’s Reptile and Amphibian Medicine and Surgery, third edition.

A Survey Study of Veterinary Student Opinions and Knowledge about Pet Reptiles and Their Welfare.

Simple SummaryVery few studies have investigated veterinary perception of reptiles kept as pets. Using 5-point Likert scale questions, this study assessed opinions of veterinary students in Croatia about pet turtles, lizards and snakes, and their welfare, including student self-reported knowledge about pet reptiles. Most of the students’ responses were neutral from the very beginning to the end of their study, emphasising the need for introducing additional veterinary education on pet reptiles, with implications for the welfare of these pets, health and safety of humans and other animals, and environmental protection.Exotic pet medicine is rapidly evolving, with reptiles becoming increasingly popular pet animals. Yet, there are only a few literature reports on veterinary perception of reptiles kept as pets. The aim of the study was to assess opinions and knowledge of the Croatian veterinarians-to-be about pet reptiles and their welfare. The questionnaire survey was conducted in the academic year 2019–2020 and included students of all six years of the integrated undergraduate and graduate study at the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Zagreb. First-year students were surveyed twice, before and after having attended the compulsory course on animal welfare. Questionnaire statements were 5-point Likert scale questions, requiring the students to express their opinions about turtles, lizards and snakes as pets, issues related to their welfare, risks they pose to the health and safety of humans, other animals and the environment, and their self-reported knowledge about pet reptiles. Although expressing higher opinions after having attended the course on animal welfare, first-year student responses remained neutral to most of the statements. Such a trend continued until the end of the study. Student responses revealed that they were uncertain about their knowledge of reptiles as pets, considering different educational areas observed. Study results emphasised the need of alterations in veterinary curriculum and additional student education in reptile medicine. The results obtained have broad implications involving not only the welfare of pet reptiles in clinical practice and elsewhere but also the health and safety of humans and other animals, as well as environmental protection.

PLASMA CAPILLARY ZONE ELECTROPHORESIS AND PLASMA CHEMISTRY ANALYTES IN TORTOISES (TESTUDO HERMANNI, TESTUDO GRAECA) AND TURTLES (TRACHEMYS SCRIPTA ELEGANS, GRAPTEMYS SPP.) IN FALL.

Clinical health checks including blood testing before brumation in fall are an important tool in reptile medicine and help to reduce the risk of complications during brumation. Electrophoresis may be useful for the evaluation of liver cell function and the detection of antigenic stimulation. The goal of this study was to compare species-specific reference intervals for plasma chemistry analytes and capillary zone electrophoresis (CZE) for a variety of pet chelonian species in fall. Lithium heparinized samples were collected from 68 clinically healthy spur-thighed tortoises (Testudo graeca), 79 red-eared sliders (Trachemys scripta elegans), and 30 map turtles (Graptemys spp.) from September to November 2016 and 2017. During the same period, 128 equivalent samples were collected from Hermann's tortoises (Testudo hermanni) and the obtained data was used for comparison. Chemistry analytes were measured from plasma using an autoanalyzer and electrophoresis was carried out by CZE. Significant variations (P < 0.0001) between the species were found for several analytes including total protein, percent albumin, and albumin: globulin ratio, α-, β-, and γ-globulin, alkaline phosphatase, glutamate dehydrogenase, alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, bile acids, creatine kinase, urea, uric acid, inorganic phosphorus, total calcium, and potassium. The variations in albumin (g/l) measured by CZE were also significant (P = 0.0064). No significant variations were detected for sodium levels. The results demonstrate the importance of species-specific reference intervals and provide reference intervals for the plasma chemistry and capillary zone electrophoresis in three chelonian species.

Companion interview

Robert Johnson is a practitioner from New South Wales and a former president of the Australian Veterinary Association. He has a life-long interest in reptile medicine although, as he explains, his patients have not always appreciated the care that he has given them. In his spare time, he is also an accomplished cartoonist, and on the cricket field, an obdurate late order batsman.

Reptile medicine and surgery in clinical practice. BDoneley, DMonks, RJohnson and BCarmel, editors. Wiley Blackwell, Oxford, 2018. 500 pages. A$119.99. Online ISBN: 9781118977705, Print ISBN: 9781118977675

Australian Veterinary JournalVolume 97, Issue 10 p. 422-422 BOOK REVIEW Reptile medicine and surgery in clinical practice. B Doneley, D Monks, R Johnson and B Carmel, editors. Wiley Blackwell, Oxford, 2018. 500 pages. A$119.99. Online ISBN: 9781118977705, Print ISBN: 9781118977675 D Neck, Search for more papers by this author D Neck, Search for more papers by this author First published: 25 September 2019 https://doi.org/10.1111/avj.12817Read the full textAboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onEmailFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditWechat No abstract is available for this article. Volume97, Issue10October 2019Pages 422-422 RelatedInformation

REFERENCE INTERVALS FOR PLASMA CAPILLARY ZONE ELECTROPHORESIS IN HERMANN'S TORTOISES (TESTUDO HERMANNI) DEPENDING ON SEASON AND SEX.

Electrophoresis is a useful diagnostic tool for the detection of shifts in plasma protein fractions, which can be associated with a variety of diseases. This method is not often used in reptile medicine because there are only a few studies available and no reference intervals have been published for most species. The goal of this study was to establish reference intervals for plasma capillary zone electrophoresis in Hermann's tortoises (Testudo hermanni) under consideration of variations by season and sex. 251 samples from healthy adult Hermann's tortoises were collected from May 2016 to October 2017. Total protein was measured by the biuret method and albumin was measured twice by bromocresol green dye-binding method (BCG) and capillary zone electrophoresis (CZE) in order to compare the detection methods. The globulin fractions were analyzed by CZE. Seasonal variations were significant for total protein (P = 0.0055), albumin (P = 0.0322) and α-globulins (P = 0.0007). The variations between male and female Hermann's tortoises were highly significant for albumin (P < 0.0001), α-globulins (P < 0.0001) and β-globulins (P < 0.0001). The differences between the measurements of albumin by CZE and BCG also differed depending on the sex and season. This study demonstrates that it is important to include the variations by sex and season when establishing reference intervals and interpreting results. Furthermore, it confirms the importance of using electrophoresis for the correct determination of albumin in tortoises.

ADVANCING TRANSFUSION MEDICINE IN SEA TURTLES: OPTIMIZATION OF A CROSS-MATCHING PROTOCOL.

Whole blood transfusions are an essential treatment modality during rehabilitation of stranded sea turtles, however, standardized protocols for transfusions are not available in reptile medicine. The objective of this study was to optimize a cross-matching protocol for sea turtle blood transfusions. Fresh venous blood samples from 15 turtles (n = 14 green turtles, Chelonia mydas [Cm]; n = 1 loggerhead sea turtle, Caretta caretta [Cc]) were tested using a temperature-appropriate (i.e., reflecting body temperature), time-sensitive protocol in 26 reactions using two procedures for cross-match evaluation at 30 and 60 min at ambient air and water bath temperature. There were no significant differences between both protocols at 30- and 60-min incubation times or between microscopic evaluations at 2 or 5 min. The major cross-match identified 7/22 incompatible Cm-Cm reactions as observed by microscopic erythrocyte agglutination. Minor cross-matches resulted in 6/22 incompatible Cm-Cm reactions. About half of all Cm-Cm reactions (12/22) were compatible by major and minor cross-match. All Cc-Cm reactions (4/4) were incompatible. A higher than expected proportion of incompatible Cm cross-matching reactions suggests preexisting antibodies to nonself erythrocyte antigens in this species, or other factors promoting erythrocyte aggregation or agglutination. Preliminary data across Cm and Cc suggests cross-species incompatibility. These results indicate that sea turtles may react to donor erythrocytes even at the first transfusion. Concurrent major and minor cross-matching using the proposed protocol at 30-min incubation at room temperature should be considered a necessary and effective way to test for patient and donor incompatibilities in sea turtles.

Cardiovascular Drugs in Avian, Small Mammal, and Reptile Medicine

Cardiovascular disease, including congestive heart failure, pericardial disease, and atherosclerosis, is becoming increasingly better recognized in companion birds, small mammals, and reptiles. A wide range of medications is available to treat these conditions, including diuretics, vasodilators, positive and negative inotropes, antiarrhythmic agents, and pentoxifylline. This review systematically discusses each of these drug classes and their potential applications in exotic species. Although treatment approaches remain largely empirical and extrapolated from small animal and human medicine, the management strategies presented here have the potential to both maintain quality of life and extend survival time for the exotic cardiac patient.

Viral diseases of reptiles

As reptile medicine has grown and more is known about various diseases in these animals, the importance of some viruses in clinical reptile practice has become more widely understood. More...

Development and validation of a competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for the measurement of total plasma immunoglobulins in healthy loggerhead sea (Caretta caretta) and green turtles (Chelonia mydas).

The quantification of circulating plasma immunoglobulins represents a valuable diagnostic tool in human and veterinary immunology, although its application is very limited in reptile medicine to date. The objectives of our study were the development and standardization of a competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (cELISA) for the measurement of total plasma immunoglobulins (Igs; both IgM and IgY) in loggerhead sea turtles (LST; Caretta caretta; n = 254) and green turtles (GT; Chelonia mydas; n = 111), the establishment of reference intervals for Ig for both species, and the examination of associations between Ig and total protein (TP), condition index, and water temperature. The cELISA for Ig was successfully developed and optimized. Reference intervals for Ig were 0.38-0.94 g/dL in LST (median: 0.59 g/dL; range: 0.16-2.15 g/dL) and 0.40-0.85 g/dL in GT (median: 0.58 g/dL; range: 0.18-1.80 g/dL). In LST, there were positive linear relationships of Ig with TP, and TP with Ig and condition index, and a negative relationship of Ig with condition index. The positive linear relationships of Ig with TP, and TP with Ig were also identified in GT. These positive associations of Ig and TP were expected, as Ig represents fractions of TP, and TP reportedly increases with straight carapace length and weight. The negative association of Ig with condition index may indicate potential biological variations. The cELISA and reference intervals for total Ig of LST and GT presented herein have the potential to be useful as a diagnostic and research tool for sea turtle immunology.

Influence of short-term storage conditions on the stability of total protein concentrations and electrophoretic fractions in plasma samples from loggerhead sea turtles, Caretta caretta

Plasma protein electrophoresis has been proposed for use in reptile medicine to aid in the diagnosis of disease. Reference intervals of plasma proteins in loggerhead sea turtles have been established; however, studies evaluating the effect of storage conditions on plasma protein and protein fractions in this species are lacking. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of short-term storage conditions on total protein concentration and electrophoretic fractions of sea turtle plasma. Blood was collected from sea turtles, and plasma obtained after centrifugation was fractioned into five aliquots. One aliquot was analyzed within 3 h after collection, whereas the remaining aliquots were stored at either +4 °C or −20 °C for 2 or 7 days. Overall, there was a significant effect of storage temperature and duration on albumin, β-globulin, and A/G ratio (Friedman rank sum test P < 0.001) but not on total protein concentration. The results of the current study show that short-term storage conditions influence the electrophoretic pattern of plasma proteins and the A/G ratio in Caretta caretta. Therefore, in order to obtain plasma protein concentrations that can serve as reliable screening tests in veterinary diagnostic laboratories, practitioners should refrigerate plasma for no more than 2 days.

Reference values for hematology and plasma biochemistry variables, and protein electrophoresis of healthy Hermann's tortoises (Testudo hermannissp.)

Hermann's tortoise, Testudo hermanni, is currently on the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) red list of endangered species. Reptile medicine relies also on laboratory analyses to evaluate health status, but reference ranges for hematology and biochemistry variables and protein electrophoresis in plasma of healthy tortoises are not available. The purposes of this study were to establish reference ranges for select hematologic and biochemical variables in clinically healthy Hermann's tortoises, and evaluate the impact of sex and season. Blood samples were collected from 34 healthy tortoises at the end of September and beginning of July. Blood smears, HCT, concentrations of HGB and select plasma biochemical analytes, select enzyme activities, and plasma protein fractions were evaluated. Reference ranges were determined and checked for influence of sex and sampling time point. Typical reptilian RBC and WBC were observed in blood smears. HCT and concentrations of HGB, uric acid and urea, and ALT and AST activities were significantly higher in males than in females. Concentrations of glucose, uric acid, and phosphate, and AST activity were significantly higher at the beginning of July, whereas concentrations of urea and Cl were higher at the end of September prior to hibernation. The electrophoretic protein fractions included albumin, and α, β, and γ globulins. The reference ranges defined in the present study are useful for clinical tortoise medicine and conservation. Sex and seasonal sampling were identified as factors significantly affecting hematology and blood chemistry analytes; they should be taken into consideration when assessing tortoise health status.

Advances in Reptile Medicine

Advances in Reptile Medicine

Testudinid Herpesviruses: A Review

Reptile medicine has been one of the fastest growing disciplines within the veterinary medicine arena during the last 20 yr. Infectious disease has proven to be one of the most interesting and challenging subspecialties of this discipline. Among the most significant pathogens discovered and investigated in the last 2 decades are the Testudinid herpesviruses, previously known as tortoise herpesviruses. The first article describing a bona fide Testudinid herpesvirus dates back to 30 yr ago. Several articles have followed and a number of features of these agents and of their associated diseases are now known. Nevertheless, several questions remain unanswered. The origin of the virus(es), the search for an effective therapy, the issue of the clinically healthy carrier and how to manage them, and the need to develop more-specific and sensitive diagnostic tests are just some of the “big” issues which will need to be tackled in the future. In this article we will review the major features of these viral agents, trying to provide a useful resource for veterinarians and researchers who either need to work with these viruses or simply to familiarize themselves with the topic.

Blood Concentrations of Enrofloxacin and the Metabolite Ciprofloxacin in Yellow-Bellied Slider Turtles (Trachemys scripta scripta) After a Single Intracoelomic Injection of Enrofloxacin

Enrofloxacin (E) is a commonly used antimicrobial in reptile medicine. However, few studies have been performed in reptile species to determine therapeutic blood levels of the fluoroquinolone (FQ) class of antimicrobial agents. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the pharmacokinetics of E and its metabolite ciprofloxacin (C) in 21 yellow-bellied slider turtles (Trachemys scripta scripta). The animals were administered 10mg/kg of E via intracoelomic injection. Blood was collected at scheduled times and analyzed using a validated high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) fluorescence method. The turtles showed some indications of transient pain following administration. The pharmacokinetics of E and C were long lasting (196 hours and 168 hours, respectively). This could be of concern where turtles are used for food because of drug tissue residues. The administered dose seemed to be optimal for clinical application because (1) drug concentrations in blood were appropriate for treating bacterial infections without adversely affecting the patient and (2) effective maximum concentration/minimum inhibitory concentration (Cmax/MIC) and area under the simulated blood-time curve (AUC)/MIC ratios were achieved. In conclusion, the dose of 10mg/kg administered via intracoelomic injection in yellow-bellied slider turtles appeared safe and achieved optimal pharmacodynamic parameters.

Determination of Serum Albumin Concentration in Healthy and Diseased Hermann's Tortoises (Testudo hermanni): A Comparison Using Electrophoresis and the Bromocresol Green Dye-Binding Method

Abstract Serum chemistry analysis is used for the evaluation of a subject's health status in reptile medicine. Protein electrophoresis, combined with the determination of total protein concentration, is the standard method for the determination of serum albumin concentration. An alternative method is the bromocresol green (BCG) dye-binding method. The BCG method for the measurement of albumin concentration in reptiles may lead to inaccurate results for serum albumin concentration. The aim of this study was to compare the serum albumin values of Hermann's tortoises (Testudo hermanni) obtained by protein electrophoresis and the BCG method and to test the reliability of the BCG method for the measurement of albumin concentration in this species of tortoise. Between May and June 2012, serum samples from 32 Hermann's tortoises, 22 healthy and 10 diseased, were analyzed. Serum albumin concentrations were measured by protein electrophoresis and by the BCG method. The results of the two methods were compared usin...