Changes In Reproductive Hormones Research Articles

Adolescence and polycystic ovary syndrome: current concepts on diagnosis and treatment.

Adolescence is a time characterised by changes in reproductive hormones and menstrual patterns, which makes it difficult to diagnose polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) in this population. The diagnosis of PCOS has a great physical and psychosocial impact on the young person. Despite the importance of a diagnosis of PCOS at adolescence, data available are limited. This review focuses on analysing markers of PCOS diagnosis and possible treatments in adolescence. Although, during adolescence, diagnosis criteria of PCOS overlap with physiological changes including clinical manifestations of hyperandrogenism (acne and hirsutism), oligo/amenorrhoea, anovulation and ovarian microcysts, there is agreement that irregular menses and hyperandrogenaemia should be used to diagnose PCOS in this population. Moreover, considering that PCOS phenotype could change through the reproductive age and that adolescents display heterogeneous ovarian morphology, it has been proposed that diagnosis of PCOS should be confirmed after the age of 18. The first-line treatment for menstrual irregularity and hirsutism are oral contraceptive pills (OCPs) and for obesity and metabolic abnormalities are lifestyle changes. Insulin-sensitizer drugs, such as metformin, may be added to the treatment in the presence of metabolic alterations. Antiandrogen drugs may also be associated for treating moderate to severe hirsutism. During adolescence, physiological changes overlap with signs and symptoms of PCOS; thus the diagnosis criteria should be carefully considered. Regarding the treatment of adolescents with PCOS, non-pharmacological interventions include lifestyle changes. Pharmacological treatments comprise OCPs, antiandrogens and metformin, used isolated or combined. During adolescence, physiological changes overlap with signs and symptoms of PCOS; thus the diagnosis criteria should be carefully considered. Regarding the treatment of adolescents with PCOS, non-pharmacological interventions include lifestyle changes. Pharmacological treatments comprise OCPs, antiandrogens and metformin, used isolated or combined.

Fructose content of low calorie diets: effect on cardiometabolic risk factors in obese women with polycystic ovarian syndrome: a randomized controlled trial.

We aimed to examine whether a whole-grain crispbread (CB) low-fructose, low-calorie diet (LCD) might be superior to a traditional LCD based on fructose-rich liquid meal replacements (LMRs) with respect to improvement of various cardiometabolic risk factors and reproductive hormones. Parallel-group randomised controlled clinical trial. Morbidly obese women with polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) were randomised to either an 8-week CB-LCD or LMR-LCD (900–1100 kcal/day, fructose 17 g/day or 85 g/day). A total of 51 women completed the study. Body weight, fat mass and waist circumference reduced by mean (s.d.) 10.0 (4.8) kg, 7.4 (4.2) kg and 8.5 (4.4) cm, with no significant differences between groups. Total-cholesterol, HDL-cholesterol and Apo-A1 were significantly reduced within both groups (all P values <0.01), with no significant between-group differences. The triacylglycerol and LDL-cholesterol levels were reduced within the LMR group only, with no significant between-group differences. Blood pressure and most measures of glucose metabolism improved significantly in both diet groups, with no significant between-group difference. Uric acid levels rose by 17.7 (46.4) and 30.6 (71.5) μmol/l in the CB and LMR group, respectively, with no significant difference between groups. Gastrointestinal discomfort was significantly and equally reduced in both intervention groups. Free testosterone index was reduced in both groups, with no significant difference between groups. Morbidly obese women with PCOS who underwent either an 8-week low or high-fructose LCD-diet had similar changes in various cardiometabolic risk factors and reproductive hormones. Registration at ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT00779571.

Gonado-hypophyseal lesions and reproductive hormonal changes in Brucella melitensis-infected mice and its lipopolysaccharides (LPSs)

Gonado-hypophyseal lesions and reproductive hormonal changes in Brucella melitensis-infected mice and its lipopolysaccharide (LPS) were investigated. Forty-eight mice (24 males and 24 females) were used as infection models in this study, and they were divided into three equal separate groups of eight mice based on their sex: M1, M2, and M3 and F1, F2, and F3 (M = Male, F = Female). Groups M1 and F1 were orally inoculated with sterile phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) and served as the negative control. Groups M2 and F2 were orally inoculated with 0.4 ml of 109 colony-forming units (cfu) of B. melitensis, while groups M3 and F3 were orally inoculated with 0.4 ml of LPSs from 109 cfu of B. melitensis. All the groups were observed for 10 days for changes in clinical signs or signs of mortality and then euthanized. Whole blood was collected via cardiac puncture, while tissues were fixed in 10 % formalin for histopathological processing. Histopathological lesions in the male and female reproductive tracts ranged from mild to moderate degenerative, inflammatory, and necrotic lesions. These changes were moderate in M2 than in M3 in males and in F3 than in F2 groups in females. Lesions in the pituitary gland ranged from mild to moderate inflammation and necrosis with astrogliosis. F2 and M2 groups had more lesion distribution in the pituitary gland than F3 and M3 groups. There was a 13 % decline in progesterone concentration in F2 and a 44 % decline in F3. Estradiol level declined by 33 % in F2 and slightly increased by 4.2 % in F3. Progesterone-estrogen ratio (P/E) increased by 31 % in F2 and declined by 46 % in F3. Testosterone concentration increased by 74 % in M2 and decreased by 56 % in M3. The study showed that oral administration of B. melitensis affects the pituitary gland and may alter the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis.

Melatonin-induced changes in kiss/gnrh gene expression patterns in the brain of male sea bass during spermatogenesis

Evidence exists that melatonin may drive the seasonal changes in kisspeptin-expressing cells and GnRH/gonadotropin secretion in mammals, thus modulating their reproductive activity. This study established the influence of long-term melatonin administration (as an implant) on growth performance and reproduction of adult male sea bass. Melatonin reduced the fish weight and condition factor, thus affecting the performance of fish. Melatonin also affected gonadogenesis, as shown by a decrease in the gonadosomatic index after 150 days of treatment and the lower percentage of running males during the spermatogenesis and full spermiation stages of this species. Exogenous melatonin also resulted in lower plasma androgen levels during the reproductive period, and showed a significant decrease in serum Lh and Fsh concentration after 30 and 60 days of treatment, respectively. Thus, melatonin elicited seasonal changes in key reproductive hormones that affected testicular maturity. The hypothalamic expression of kiss1 was significantly higher in melatonin-treated fish than in controls after 30 days of treatment, while a significant increase in kiss2 expression was detected on day 90 of treatment. By contrast, melatonin showed a significant decrease in kisspeptin expression in the dorsal brain on day 150 of treatment and also affected the expression of gnrh-1 and gnrh-3 and gnrhr-II-1a and 2b and the fshβ gene in the pituitary. These results suggest that in this species, melatonin evokes changes in the mRNA levels of kisspeptin and gnrh system genes that appear to mirror disturbances in spermatogenesis.

Covariation of change in bioavailable testosterone and adiposity in midlife women

ObjectiveTo determine whether menopause-related changes in reproductive hormones are associated with change in adiposity and whether these relationships are independent of important covariates.Design and MethodsAnnual assessments of adiposity measures [CT-assessed visceral adipose tissue (VAT), subcutaneous abdominal adipose tissue (SAT), and DXA-assessed total body fat (TBF)] over 4 years from an ancillary study at the Chicago site of the Study of Women's Health Across the Nation (SWAN) were paired with reproductive hormones collected by SWAN. Included were 243 women (44% African American, 56% Caucasian), who were eligible participants in a population-based cohort with a 72% participation rate.ResultsVAT increased by 3.8% annually, and SAT increased by 1.8% per year. Change in bioavailable testosterone was significantly positively associated with changes both inVAT and in SAT but was not related to change in total body fat. The associations were independent of age, race, physical activity, smoking, baseline TBF, baseline bioavailable testosterone, and change in TBF. Change in estradiol were unrelated to changes in any adiposity measure.ConclusionBioavailable testosterone may play an important role in menopause-related redistribution of visceral and subcutaneous fat in the central abdominal region.

Short-term changes in hormonal profiles after laparoscopic ovarian laser evaporation compared with diagnostic laparoscopy for PCOS

Which reproductive endocrine changes are attributed exclusively to laparoscopic ovarian drilling in polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS)? Laser evaporation-specific endocrine effects were the prevention of an immediate increase in inhibin B and a sustained decrease in testosterone, androstenedione and anti-Müllarian hormone (AMH). All ovarian drilling procedures result in reproductive endocrine changes. It is not known which of these changes are the result of ovarian drilling and which are related to the surgery per se. This prospective controlled study was performed at an outpatient academic fertility clinic. Between 2007 and 2010, a total of 21 oligo- or amenorrheic PCOS patients were included. Included were oligo- or amenorrheic PCOS patients with all three of the Rotterdam criteria and luteinizing hormone (LH) >6.5 U/l. All PCOS patients had an indication for diagnostic surgery due to subfertility. There were 12 PCOS patients who chose to undergo ovarian laser evaporation (CO2 laser, 25 W, 20 times/ovary) and 9 PCOS who chose a diagnostic laparoscopy only (controls). Reproductive endocrinology was measured before, and until 5 days after, surgery, and four gonadotrophin-releasing hormone (GnRH) 'double pulse' tests were included. The main outcome measures were changes in reproductive endocrinology and pituitary sensitivity/priming to GnRH after laser evaporation compared with diagnostic laparoscopy only. In the first hours after surgery, both groups showed an increase in LH, follicle stimulating hormone, estrogen and a decrease in testosterone, androstenedione, AMH and insulin growth factor-1 (P < 0.05). Inhibin B increased in the laparoscopy only group (P < 0.05). In the first days after surgery, testosterone, androstenedione and AMH remained at lower than baseline levels exclusively in the laser group (P < 0.05). Pituitary sensitivity/priming to GnRH was not altered after either laser evaporation or laparoscopy only. The limitations of this study are the short follow-up period and the relatively small groups. The strength of this study is the integrally measured endocrine profiles in combination with an optimal control group of PCOS patients undergoing diagnostic laparoscopy only. Interestingly, most of the immediate endocrine changes after laser evaporation could be related to the surgical context and not to the ovarian drilling procedure itself. The study was funded by the Foundation of Scientific Research in Obstetrics and Gynaecology and the study medication, Lutrelef, was donated by Ferring, The Netherlands, Hoofdorphe There were no conflicts of interests mentioned by the authors.

The role of reproductive hormones in postpartum depression.

Despite decades of research aimed at identifying the causes of postpartum depression (PPD), PPD remains common, and the causes are poorly understood. Many have attributed the onset of PPD to the rapid perinatal change in reproductive hormones. Although a number of human and nonhuman animal studies support the role of reproductive hormones in PPD, several studies have failed to detect an association between hormone concentrations and PPD. The purpose of this review is to examine the hypothesis that fluctuations in reproductive hormone levels during pregnancy and the postpartum period trigger PPD in susceptible women. We discuss and integrate the literature on animal models of PPD and human studies of reproductive hormones and PPD. We also discuss alternative biological models of PPD to demonstrate the potential for multiple PPD phenotypes and to describe the complex interplay of changing reproductive hormones and alterations in thyroid function, immune function, hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis function, lactogenic hormones, and genetic expression that may contribute to affective dysfunction. There are 3 primary lines of inquiry that have addressed the role of reproductive hormones in PPD: nonhuman animal studies, correlational studies of postpartum hormone levels and mood symptoms, and hormone manipulation studies. Reproductive hormones influence virtually every biological system implicated in PPD, and a subgroup of women seem to be particularly sensitive to the effects of perinatal changes in hormone levels. We propose that these women constitute a "hormone-sensitive" PPD phenotype, which should be studied independent of other PPD phenotypes to identify underlying pathophysiology and develop novel treatment targets.

Habitual alcohol consumption associated with reduced semen quality and changes in reproductive hormones; a cross-sectional study among 1221 young Danish men

ObjectiveStudy associations between three measures of alcohol consumption (recent, typical/habitual, binging), semen quality and serum reproductive hormones.DesignCross-sectional population based study.Setting and participants1221 young Danish men, aged 18–28 years were recruited...

Slow‐pressor angiotensin II hypertension and concomitant dendritic NMDA receptor trafficking in estrogen receptor β–containing neurons of the mouse hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus are sex and age dependent

The incidence of hypertension increases after menopause. Similar to humans, "slow-pressor" doses of angiotensin II (AngII) increase blood pressure in young males, but not in young female mice. However, AngII increases blood pressure in aged female mice, paralleling reproductive hormonal changes. These changes could influence receptor trafficking in central cardiovascular circuits and contribute to hypertension. Increased postsynaptic N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor activity in the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus (PVN) is crucial for the sympathoexcitation driving AngII hypertension. Estrogen receptors β (ERβs) are present in PVN neurons. We tested the hypothesis that changes in ovarian hormones with age promote susceptibility to AngII hypertension, and influence NMDA receptor NR1 subunit trafficking in ERβ-containing PVN neurons. Transgenic mice expressing enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) in ERβ-containing cells were implanted with osmotic minipumps delivering AngII (600 ng/kg/min) or saline for 2 weeks. AngII increased blood pressure in 2-month-old males and 18-month-old females, but not in 2-month-old females. By electron microscopy, NR1-silver-intensified immunogold (SIG) was mainly in ERβ-EGFP dendrites. At baseline, NR1-SIG density was greater in 2-month-old females than in 2-month-old males or 18-month-old females. After AngII infusion, NR1-SIG density was decreased in 2-month-old females, but increased in 2-month-old males and 18-month-old females. These findings suggest that, in young female mice, NR1 density is decreased in ERβ-PVN dendrites thus reducing NMDA receptor activity and preventing hypertension. Conversely, in young males and aged females, NR1 density is upregulated in ERβ-PVN dendrites and ultimately leads to the neurohumoral dysfunction driving hypertension.

Descriptive review: hormonal influences on risk for eating disorder symptoms during puberty and adolescence.

Puberty is an important period of risk for the onset of eating pathology in adolescent females. This review focuses on changes in reproductive hormones during puberty as one specific psychopathogenic mechanism. Studies of puberty and eating disorder-related phenotypes were identified using search databases and the reference sections of previous literature. Correlational studies of adult women and experimental studies of animals provide evidence for the effects of reproductive hormones on eating disorder symptoms. Very few studies of puberty, however, have directly measured or tested the effects of hormonal change in samples of human adolescents. Commonly used measures of pubertal development, such as menarche or self-reported pubertal status, are relatively poor indicators of individual differences in hormones. The extent to which puberty-related hormonal change accounts for elevated risk for disordered eating remains unclear. Future research is necessary to elucidate the specific relations between hormonal change during puberty and risk for disordered eating. In particular, there is a need for longitudinal studies with multivariate measurement of pubertal development, including direct measures of change in reproductive hormones.

Endothelial cell phenotype varies by sex and tissue of origin (664.3)

Endothelial cell (EC) dysfunction is a hallmark of several vascular diseases (CVD) that also show female (F) vs. male (M) differences in incidence and severity. As these differences change with age, i.e., pre‐menopausal F &lt; M, post‐menopausal F 蠅 M, it has been assumed that the reproductive sex hormones, particularly E2, account for the dichotomy. In spite of the correlations between hormonal changes and CVD incidence, data exist demonstrating sex‐hormone independent variations. Before the mechanisms regulating health and disease can be determined, the phenotypes of the F and M EC require description and comparison in the absence of changes in reproductive hormones. To this end we isolated EC from aorta (AEC), skeletal muscle (SkmEC) and mesenteric microvasculature (MesMEC) of young adult F and M Sprague Dawley rats. The EC evaluated under basal conditions for a variety of attributes, including morphology (size, shape, topology, EC‐specific characteristics), growth, metabolism, and receptor and signaling protein expression displayed multiple sex‐ and tissue‐specific differences. This knowledge facilitates the development of appropriate models for future investigations, both in vitro and in vivo.Grant Funding Source: Supported by DK095501, HCO6RR017353 &amp; the MU Pulmonary/MPP Partnership

Cardiac contraction, calcium transients, and myofilament calcium sensitivity fluctuate with the estrous cycle in young adult female mice

This study established conditions to induce regular estrous cycles in female C57BL/6J mice and investigated the impact of the estrous cycle on contractions, Ca2+ transients, and underlying cardiac excitation-contraction (EC)-coupling mechanisms. Daily vaginal smears from group-housed virgin female mice were stained to distinguish estrous stage (proestrus, estrus, metestrus, diestrus). Ventricular myocytes were isolated from anesthetized mice. Contractions and Ca2+ transients were measured simultaneously (4 Hz, 37 °C). Interestingly, mice did not exhibit regular cycles unless they were exposed to male pheromones in bedding added to their cages. Field-stimulated myocytes from mice in estrus had larger contractions (∼2-fold increase), larger Ca2+ transients (∼1.11-fold increase), and longer action potentials (>2-fold increase) compared with other stages. Larger contractions and Ca2+ transients were not observed in estrus myocytes voltage-clamped with shorter action potentials. Voltage-clamp experiments also demonstrated that estrous stage had no effect on Ca2+ current, EC-coupling gain, diastolic Ca2+, sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) Ca2+ content, or fractional release. Although contractions were largest in estrus, myofilament Ca2+ sensitivity was lowest (EC50 values ∼1.15-fold higher) in conjunction with increased phosphorylation of myosin binding protein C in estrus. Contractions were enhanced in ventricular myocytes from mice in estrus because action potential prolongation increased SR Ca2+ release. These findings demonstrate that cyclical changes in reproductive hormones associated with the estrous cycle can influence myocardial electrical and contractile function and modify Ca2+ homeostasis. However, such changes are unlikely to occur in female mice housed in groups under conventional conditions, since these mice do not exhibit regular estrous cycles.

Changes in Sexual Functioning and Sex Hormone Levels in Women Following Bariatric Surgery

Obesity has been associated with impairments in sexual function and untoward changes in reproductive hormones in women. Relatively few studies have investigated changes in these domains following bariatric surgery. To investigate changes in sexual functioning, sex hormone levels, and relevant psychosocial constructs in women who underwent bariatric surgery. A prospective cohort study of 106 women from phase 2 of the Longitudinal Assessment of Bariatric Surgery who underwent bariatric surgery (median [interquartile range] body mass index, 44.5 [41.4-49.7]). Assessments were completed between 2006 and 2012. Bariatric surgery was performed by a surgeon certified by the Longitudinal Assessment of Bariatric Surgery (85 women underwent a Roux-en-Y gastric bypass, and 21 women underwent laparoscopic adjustable gastric banding). Sexual functioning was assessed by use of the Female Sexual Function Index. Hormones were assessed by use of a blood assay. Quality of life, body image, depressive symptoms, and marital adjustment were assessed by use of validated questionnaires. Women lost a mean 32.7% (95% CI, 30.7%-34.7%) of initial body weight at postoperative year 1 and a mean 33.5% (95% CI, 31.5%-35.6%) at postoperative year 2. Two years following surgery, women reported significant improvements in overall sexual functioning and specific domains of sexual functioning: arousal, lubrication, desires, and satisfaction. They also experienced significant changes at 2 years in all hormones of interest. Women reported significant improvements in most domains of quality of life, as well as body image and depressive symptoms, within the first year after surgery, with these improvements being maintained through the second postoperative year. Women who underwent bariatric surgery had significant improvements in overall sexual functioning, in most reproductive hormones of interest, and in psychosocial status. Improvements in sexual health can be added to the list of health benefits associated with bariatric surgery. clinicaltrials.gov Identifier: NCT00670098.

240 No influence of magnetic resonance imaging scan on male reproductive hormones

ObjectivesTo investigate if magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) influences male reproductive hormones. The use of MRI is increasing around the world and the possible adverse effects on reproductive health of electromagnetic...

Sleep and Women's Health.

Sex differences in sleep begin at a very early age and women report poorer sleep quality and have higher risk for insomnia than do men. Sleep may be affected by variation in reproductive hormones, stress, depression, aging, life/role transitions, and other factors. The menstrual cycle is associated with changes in circadian rhythms and sleep architecture. Menstruating women (even without significant menstrual-related complaints) often report poorer sleep quality and greater sleep disturbance during the premenstrual week compared to other times of her menstrual cycle. In addition to these sleep disturbances, women with severe premenstrual syndrome often report more disturbing dreams, sleepiness, fatigue, decreased alertness and concentration during the premenstrual phase. Sleep disturbances are also commonly reported during pregnancy and increase in frequency and duration as the pregnancy progresses. The precipitous decline in hormones and unpredictable sleep patterns of the newborn contribute to and/or exacerbate poor sleep and daytime sleepiness during the early postpartum period. Insomnia is also among the most common health complaints that are reported by perimenopausal women. Women are particularly vulnerable to developing insomnia disorder during these times of reproductive hormonal change. In this review, we present a discussion on the most relevant and recent publications on sleep across the woman's lifespan, including changes in sleep related to menstruation, pregnancy, postpartum, and the menopausal transition. Treatment for sleep disturbances and insomnia disorder and special considerations for treating women will also be discussed.

Изменение гормонального и метаболического статуса у мужчин этнической группы коми с избыточной массой тела и ожирением

The aim of this study was to compare hormonal, anthropometric and metabolic parameters in men of the komi ethnic group with (n=23, BMI ≥25 kg/м2) or without (n=39, 18.4≤BMI <25 kg/м2) obesity. Totally 62 males living in Komi Republic were included in the study. It has been established that obesity was accompanied by an increase in serum concentrations of cholesterol and low density lipoprotein cholesterol in comparison with control group indicating metabolic disturbance. The data shows the significant effect of BMI on testosterone and FSH serum concentration, but not on LH, estradiol, thyrotrophic hormone, thyroxin and triiodthyronin levels. Overweight and obese men had lower circulating testosterone and higher FSH level in comparison with the controls. The reproductive hormone changes in overweight and obese men can result in deleterious effects on sexual functions including erectile dysfunction, reduced libido and alteration in spermatogenesis

Changes in hormonal and metabolic status in men of an ethnic group Komi with overweight and obesity

The aim of this study was to compare hormonal, anthropometric and metabolic parameters in men of the komi ethnic group with (n=23, BMI ≥25 kg/м2) or without (n=39, 18.4≤BMI 25 kg/м2) obesity. Totally 62 males living in Komi Republic were included in the study. It has been established that obesity was accompanied by an increase in serum concentrations of cholesterol and low density lipoprotein cholesterol in comparison with control group indicating metabolic disturbance. The data shows the significant effect of BMI on testosterone and FSH serum concentration, but not on LH, estradiol, thyrotrophic hormone, thyroxin and triiodthyronin levels. Overweight and obese men had lower circulating testosterone and higher FSH level in comparison with the controls. The reproductive hormone changes in overweight and obese men can result in deleterious effects on sexual functions including erectile dysfunction, reduced libido and alteration in spermatogenesis

Changes in the reproductive endocrine function in rat following intraovary microinjection of inhba overexpression lentivirus vectors

Objective: To investigate the reproductive endocrine changes after inhba overexpression into rat ovary.Method: Thirty Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly assigned to three groups. Inhba overexpression lentivirus vectors (LV-eGFP-inhba) were microinjected into rat ovary (INH group); Control animals received the same amount lentivirus vector empty (CON group) or LV-eGFP (GFP group). Antral follicle amount and diameter were counted and serum level of activin A, E2, P, FSH, and LH and the expression of ER-α, ER-β, PR, FSHR, and LHR were measured.Results: There was no significant difference among three groups in antral follicle amount; antral follicle diameter was increased in INH group rats compared with the other group rats. Serum levels of activin A, E2, P, and FSH were increased and LH was decreased in INH group rats compared with the other group rats. The mRNA and protein expression of ER-α, ER-β, FSHR was higher in INH group rats than that in the other group rats. There was no significant difference in mRNA and protein expression of PR among the three group rats, LHR expression was decreased in INH group rats compared with the other two group rats.Conclusion: inhba overexpression in rat ovary in vivo may change reproductive endocrine function.

Non-invasive reproductive and stress endocrinology in amphibian conservation physiology.

Non-invasive endocrinology utilizes non-invasive biological samples (such as faeces, urine, hair, aquatic media, and saliva) for the quantification of hormones in wildlife. Urinary-based enzyme immunoassay (EIA) and radio-immunoassay have enabled the rapid quantification of reproductive and stress hormones in amphibians (Anura: Amphibia). With minimal disturbance, these methods can be used to assess the ovarian and testicular endocrine functions as well as physiological stress in captive and free-living populations. Non-invasive endocrine monitoring has therefore greatly advanced our knowledge of the functioning of the stress endocrine system (the hypothalamo-pituitary-interrenal axis) and the reproductive endocrine system (the hypothalamo-pituitary-gonadal axis) in the amphibian physiological stress response, reproductive ecology, health and welfare, and survival. Biological (physiological) validation is necessary for obtaining the excretory lag time of hormone metabolites. Urinary-based EIA for the major reproductive hormones, estradiol and progesterone in females and testosterone in males, can be used to track the reproductive hormone profiles in relationship to reproductive behaviour and environmental data in free-living anurans. Urinary-based corticosterone metabolite EIA can be used to assess the sublethal impacts of biological stressors (such as invasive species and pathogenic diseases) as well as anthropogenic induced environmental stressors (e.g. extreme temperatures) on free-living populations. Non-invasive endocrine methods can also assist in the diagnosis of success or failure of captive breeding programmes by measuring the longitudinal patterns of changes in reproductive hormones and corticosterone within captive anurans and comparing the endocrine profiles with health records and reproductive behaviour. This review paper focuses on the reproductive and the stress endocrinology of anurans and demonstrates the uses of non-invasive endocrinology for advancing amphibian conservation physiology. It also provides key technical considerations for future research that will increase the accuracy and reliability of the data and the value of non-invasive endocrinology within the conceptual framework of conservation physiology.

Therapy of endocrine disease: Testicular function and fertility in men with Klinefelter syndrome: a review

Klinefelter syndrome, 47,XXY (KS), is the most frequent sex chromosome aberration in males, affecting 1 in 660 newborn boys. The syndrome is characterized by testicular destruction with extensive fibrosis and hyalinization of the seminiferous tubules resulting in small testes, hypergonadotropic hypogonadism, and azoospermia in the majority of cases. Until recently, infertility was considered an untreatable condition in KS. However, with the development of new advanced assisted reproductive techniques such as testicular sperm extraction (TESE) combined with ICSI it seems that KS patients should no longer be labelled as infertile. Especially, microdissection (micro)-TESE has proved to be an advantageous procedure for the identification of testicular spermatozoa in KS. The aim of this review was to describe current knowledge on the testicular changes occurring in KS, the associated changes in reproductive hormones and spermatogenesis, and the existing possibilities of biological fatherhood in 47,XXY patients.