Repeat Victimization Research Articles

A Victim-Focused Response to Repeat Fraud and Computer Misuse Crimes: Challenges and Opportunities through Admin Data Linkage

Background with rationaleThe volume of Fraud and Computer Misuse victimisation in the UK is estimated to be nearly equivalent to all other crime types combined. Alongside this, the Victims’ Charter establishes enhanced rights for vulnerable victims, a category which includes repeat victims, placing a responsibility on criminal justice agencies to assess vulnerability and respond accordingly. However, identifying repeat victimisation is challenging and the relationship between reported repeat victimisation and vulnerability requires empirical scrutiny.
 Main aimThis presentation draws on PhD research funded by the Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC) and conducted in collaboration with the Southern Wales Regional Organised Crime Unit (ROCU), to profile victims of fraud and computer misuse in Wales. It presents the methodological challenges and lessons learnt from linking administrative crime records to identify and profile repeat victims of fraud and computer misuse across the four Welsh police forces.
 Methods/ApproachThis research utilised a sample of all incidents reported within the Welsh police force areas over a period of two years (1st October 2014 to 30th September 2016). A mixture of exact and probabilistic matching was used to match records relating to the same victim, leveraging R’s RecordLinkage package in conjunction with Tidyverse. A variety of descriptive and inferential statistics were used to summarise key relationships within the resulting linked dataset.
 Results & ConclusionLinking crime records presents considerable methodological challenges related to data quality and the availability and accessibility of linkage tools. These difficulties impair the assessment of vulnerability which is demanded of criminal justice agencies. Despite their limitations however, crime records can be used to provide new insights into the nature of repeat victimisation and the characteristics of victims who report being repeatedly victimised.

Missing children: risks, repeats and responses

ABSTRACT Investigating reports of missing children is a major source of demand for the police in the UK. Repeat disappearances are common, can indicate underlying vulnerabilities and have been linked with various forms of exploitation and abuse. Inspired by research on repeat victimisation, this paper examines the prevalence and temporal patterns of repeat missing episodes by children, as well as the characteristics of those involved. Using data on all missing children incidents recorded by one UK police service in 2015 (n = 3352), we find that: (a) 75% of missing incidents involving children were repeats, i.e. attributed to children who had already been reported missing in 2015; (b) a small proportion of repeatedly missing children (n = 59; 4%) accounted for almost a third of all missing children incidents (n = 952, 28%); (c) over half of all first repeat disappearances occurred within four weeks of an initial police recorded missing episode; and (d) children recorded as missing ten times or more over the one year study period were significantly more likely than those recorded missing once to be teenagers, in the care system or to have drug and/or alcohol dependencies. We conclude by discussing the implications of our findings for future research and the prevention of repeat disappearances by children.

Using geographically weighted regression to explore neighborhood‐level predictors of domestic abuse in the UK

AbstractReducing domestic abuse has become a priority for both local and national governments in the UK, with its substantial human, social, and economic costs. It is an interdisciplinary issue, but to date there has been no research in the UK that has focused on neighborhood‐level predictors of domestic abuse and their variation across space. This article uses geographically weighted regression to model the predictors of police‐reported domestic abuse in Essex. Readily available structural and cultural variables were found to predict the domestic abuse rate and the repeat victimization rate at the lower super output area level and the model coefficients were all found to be non‐stationary, indicating varying relationships across space. This research not only has important implications for victims' well being, but also enables policy makers to gain a better understanding of the geography of victimization, allowing targeted policy interventions and efficiently allocated resources.

Differences in Lesbian, Bisexual, and Heterosexual Women's Experiences of Sexual Assault and Rape in a National U.S. Sample.

Lesbian and bisexual women experience significantly higher rates of sexual assault and rape compared with heterosexual women. Despite this, researchers have yet to distinguish whether sexual orientation itself or some other related social characteristics explain these higher rates. The objective of this study was to analyze women's rates of sexual assault and rape across sexual orientation status while accounting for other social characteristics (e.g., race, education, income, outness). Women (N = 1,366), who identified as lesbian (31%), bisexual (32%), and heterosexual (31%), completed a nationally distributed, cross-sectional online survey in 2016. Victimization and repeat victimization were assessed using a modified version of Sexual Experience Survey-Short Form Victimization. Overall, 63% of bisexual, 49% of lesbian, and 35% of heterosexual women reported experiencing rape in their lifetime. When holding all other social characteristics constant, sexual orientation remained a significant predictor in the model. Compared with the odds of heterosexual women experiencing sexual assault or rape, bisexual women (3.7 odds of victimization; 7.3 odds of repeat victimization) and lesbian women (3.2 odds of repeat victimization) were disproportionately victimized. Sexual orientation clearly plays a role in sexual victimization risk, independent of other measured sociodemographic indicators. Continued research is needed to explore possible mechanisms behind sexual assault and rape prevalence, as well as the influence of contextual factors of victimization risk among sexual minority men.

A realist review of which advocacy interventions work for which abused women under what circumstances.

A realist review of which advocacy interventions work for which abused women under what circumstances.

Increasing Inequality in Experience of Victimization During the Crime Drop: Analysing Patterns of Victimization in Scotland from 1993 to 2014–15

AbstractResearch on the international crime drop has predominantly focused on the nature and extent of overall crime or changes in specific crime types, but less attention has been paid to how equally the crime drop has been distributed across society. Applying a novel quasi-longitudinal approach to Scottish victimization data, this article examines changes in the prevalence, frequency and type of victimization experienced. We argue that the crime drop has resulted in an increase in inequality between those at most and least risk of being a victim of crime, especially violence. The article contributes to theoretical debates on the crime drop, crime inequality and distributive justice, and provides policy recommendations on the importance of crime reduction strategies that target repeat victimization.

Examining the Association Between Personal Victimization in Adolescence and Intimate Partner Victimization in Adulthood.

A large body of research has examined various issues related to repeat victimization, including potential risk factors and theoretical explanations. Despite the amount of studies dedicated to focusing on repeat victimization, there are some notable gaps in the literature. One particularly noteworthy omission in this research is whether there is a link between personal victimization in adolescence and intimate partner violence (IPV) victimization in adulthood. The current study sought to address this gap. To do so, data drawn from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health were analyzed. The results revealed a statistically significant and relatively consistent association between personal victimization in adolescence and IPV victimization in adulthood. This association was detected for both males and females, and it was detected even after controlling for low self-control (males and females) and being the perpetrator of IPV (males). We conclude by noting some of the implications of these findings, as well as limitations to the study that need to be addressed in the future.

Spatiotemporal analysis of burglary in multifamily housing in Fukuoka City, Japan

Although previous studies have referred to the spatiotemporal patterns of burglaries called “repeat victimization” (RV) and “near repeat” (NR), only a few have explicitly dealt with multifamily housing, and none of them have distinguished among RV of a dwelling-unit, victimization of another unit in the same building, and NR in a nearby building. This work examined the spatiotemporal patterns of burglaries in multifamily housing in Fukuoka City, Japan, at both the building and dwelling-unit levels. The data were provided by the Fukuoka Prefectural Police of 8845 cases that occurred between 2005 and 2014. The number of burglary incidents in previously burgled multifamily buildings and in previously burgled dwelling units accounted for 31% and 8.4% of all incidents, respectively. The results of the building-level analysis showed NR patterns in nearby buildings, even after excluding victimization of other units in the same building, in a spatiotemporal range of 200 m and 60 days. The results of the dwelling-unit-level analysis verified a significantly high risk of RV of a unit in 160 days and around twice as high a risk of victimization of other units in the same building in almost 80 days. Thus, this study showed the risk of RV and NR in multifamily housing, which would contribute to the literature in that it expanded the scope of the RV/NR model in detached housing that has been proposed in previous studies. Finally, recommended measures against RV and NR of burglaries in the Japanese context and the research limitations are discussed.

Predicting susceptibility to cyber-fraud victimhood

PurposeThis paper aims to develop a theoretical framework to predict susceptibility to cyber-fraud victimhood.Design/methodology/approachA survey was constructed to examine whether personality, socio-demographic characteristics and online routine activities predicted one-off and repeat victimhood of cyber-fraud. Overall, 11,780 participants completed a survey (one-off victims, N = 728; repeat victims = 329).FindingsThe final saturated model revealed that psychological and socio-demographic characteristics and online routine activities should be considered when predicting victimhood. Consistent with the hypotheses, victims of cyber-frauds were more likely to be older, score high on impulsivity measures of urgency and sensation seeking, score high on addictive measures and engage in more frequent routine activities that place them at great risk of becoming scammed. There was little distinction between one-off and repeat victims of cyber-frauds.Originality/valueThis work uniquely combines psychological, socio-demographic and online behaviours to develop a comprehensive theoretical framework to predict susceptibility to cyber-frauds. Importantly, the work here challenges the current utility of government websites to protect users from becoming scammed and provides insights into methods that might be used to protect users from becoming scammed.

What works for whom and why: A narrative systematic review of interventions for reducing post-traumatic stress disorder and problematic substance use among women with experiences of interpersonal violence

Background and aimsWomen with histories of interpersonal violence (IPV) experience high levels of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), problematic substance use, and repeat victimization. Previous systematic reviews considering the effectiveness of integrated trauma-specific treatments to address PTSD and substance use have lacked sub-group analysis by gender or trauma type. Furthermore, mindfulness-based interventions for treating both issues together are under-researched. It is unclear what treatment components and contextual factors impacting implementation work best for women with IPV experiences. This narrative review examines a range of quantitative and qualitative data to explore: for which groups of women do integrated interventions work (subgroups)? How (mechanisms of action), and/or under what contexts (factors external to the intervention)? MethodologyA two-staged search strategy identified eligible studies. This process identified 20 controlled trials reporting on the effectiveness of psychological or mindfulness-based interventions for PTSD and substance use and 39 relevant supplementary information related to the trials. Narrative synthesis using thematic analysis was conducted on manuscripts identified in both stages. FindingsSafe social support and ongoing risks of violence were identified as contextual factors which may affect treatment outcomes, requiring attention by researchers and treatment providers. Whilst there was some evidence that reduced PTSD correlates with substance use decrease, there may be more than one pathway to substance use reduction among women with PTSD, requiring a focus on emotional regulation. Other ‘active mechanisms’ included different modalities of coping skills and support to rebuild connection with self and others. Lack of supplementary studies for trials involving past-focused treatment precluded detailed discussion of these models. ConclusionsIntegrated PTSD and substance use treatment which teaches extensive coping skills to promote external safety, symptom stabilisation, and emotional regulation, combined with access to safe social support and external advocacy, may be particularly useful for women with more severe PTSD, or for those experiencing ongoing victimization for whom past-focused treatments are contraindicated. Long-term support and organisational trauma-informed practice in substance use treatment services should also be promoted.

Is the Trouble Still Going On? Exploring Victims' Accounts of Why Repeat Violent and Property Victimization Ends.

Programs designed to reduce repeat property victimization tend to be more successful than those aimed at repeat violence. To help understand this pattern, we examine narrative data about repeat victimization obtained from victims participating in the National Crime Victimization Survey. Victims report numerous reasons for the end of repeat property and violent incidents, though the modal response for both types of crime included victim-initiated actions taken to reduce contact with offenders. Victims of repeat violence also noted the importance of legal actions, especially for ending victimizations that involve intimate partners. We discuss how research that capitalizes on victims' perspectives can improve our understanding of how these incidents end and help inform programs seeking to reduce repeat victimization.

A Near Repeat Examination of Economic Crimes

Criminological inquiry has recently showcased increased attention toward the near repeat phenomenon, which suggests that following an initial criminal event, there is an increased risk for the occurrence of the same type of event spatially and temporally proximate to the initiating event. The majority of previous research tends focuses on the patterns related to violent and conventional property crimes but neglects to examine other economic-related crimes. Given the significant costs associated with this crime type, unpacking hidden patterns may be useful in identifying high-risk areas and deploying appropriate countermeasures. The current study builds on previous examinations of the near repeat phenomenon through the exploration of specific economic crimes (counterfeiting, credit card/ATM fraud, false pretense/swindling) using 6 years of crime data from the Fort Worth (Texas) Police Department. Although near repeat patterns were discovered across multiple analyses, the greatest risk across all analyses was for repeat victimization at the same location. A discussion of policy implications, limitations, and areas for future research are also provided.

Whatever happened to repeat victimisation?

Crime is concentrated at the individual level (hot dots) as well as at area level (hot spots). Research on repeat victimisation affords rich prevention opportunities but has been increasingly marginalised by policy makers and implementers despite repeat victims accounting for increasing proportions of total crime. The present paper seeks to trigger a resurgence of interest in research and initiatives based on the prevention of repeat victimisation.

Labor trafficking victimizations: Repeat victimization and polyvictimization.

Labor trafficking victimizations: Repeat victimization and polyvictimization.

A comparative analysis to forecast apartment burglaries in Vienna, Austria, based on repeat and near repeat victimization

In this paper, we introduce two methods to forecast apartment burglaries that are based on repeat and near repeat victimization. While the first approach, the “heuristic method” generates buffer areas around each new apartment burglary, the second approach concentrates on forecasting near repeat chain links. These near repeat chain links are events that follow a near repeat pair of an originating and (near) repeat event that is close in space and in time. We name this approach the “near repeat chain method”. This research analyzes apartment burglaries from November 2013 to November 2016 in Vienna, Austria. The overall research goal is to investigate whether the near repeat chain method shows better prediction efficiencies (using a capture rate and the prediction accuracy index) while producing fewer prediction areas. Results show that the near repeat chain method proves to be the more efficient compared to the heuristic method for all bandwidth combinations analyzed in this research.

Crime modeling with truncated Lévy flights for residential burglary models

Statistical agent-based models for crime have shown that repeat victimization can lead to predictable crime hotspots (see e.g. M. B. Short, M. R. D’Orsogna, V. B. Pasour, G. E. Tita, P. J. Brantingham, A. L. Bertozzi and L. B. Chayes, A statistical model of criminal behavior, Math. Models Methods Appl. Sci. 18 (2008) 1249–1267.), then a recent study in one-space dimension (S. Chaturapruek, J. Breslau, D. Yazdi, T. Kolokolnikov and S. G. McCalla, Crime modeling with Lévy flights, SIAM J. Appl. Math. 73 (2013) 1703–1720.) shows that the hotspot dynamics changes when movement patterns of the criminals involve long-tailed Lévy distributions for the jump length as opposed to classical random walks. In reality, criminals move in confined areas with a maximum jump length. In this paper, we develop a mean-field continuum model with truncated Lévy flights (TLFs) for residential burglary in one-space dimension. The continuum model yields local Laplace diffusion, rather than fractional diffusion. We present an asymptotic theory to derive the continuum equations and show excellent agreement between the continuum model and the agent-based simulations. This suggests that local diffusion models are universal for continuum limits of this problem, the important quantity being the diffusion coefficient. Law enforcement agents are also incorporated into the model, and the relative effectiveness of their deployment strategies are compared quantitatively.

Crime victims’ evaluations of procedural justice and police performance in relation to cooperation: a qualitative study in the Netherlands

ABSTRACTPrevious research suggests that perceived negative treatment by police officers may have consequences for victims’ willingness to share information with the police. This might explain why particularly repeat victims are less likely to cooperate with the police. The current study explores why this would be true by conducting in-depth interviews with 32 crime victims who had recently reported their victimisation of property crime or violent crime to the police. Results indicate that victims of both types of crime had similar thoughts on what was deemed fair treatment. Victims who were deeply touched by the crime and/or the offender thought it was also important that the police took a clear-stance against the crime. While rapid case handling seemed to be more important for property crime victims than police officers’ investigative actions and the outcome, victims of violent crime expected the police to find the offender to make it clear to the offender that such (law-breaking) behaviour was not tolerated. When victims of violent crime felt that the police had failed in this task, they would feel abandoned by the police. This feeling had not only negative consequences for these victims’ willingness to cooperate, but could even lead to feelings of vigilantism, particularly among victims of violent crime who knew their offender. Implications for policy and future research are discussed.

Preventing near-repeat residential burglary through cocooning: post hoc evaluation of a targeted police-led pilot intervention

The Western Australian Police piloted an 8-month small-scale targeted burglary prevention initiative involving distribution of crime prevention pamphlets to burglary victims and their immediate neighbors in the few days directly after victimization. External researchers then undertook a post hoc evaluation of this intervention, examining the impact with a pre- and post-comparison using Ratcliffe’s (Near-repeat calculator (version 1.3), Temple University, Philadelphia, 2009) near-repeat calculator (using 50 m and 5-day intervals for space and time, respectively), analysis of police records relating to the implementation of the intervention, and an online survey of residents who had been scheduled to receive the burglary prevention information. Relative to the pre-intervention period, the near-repeat calculator demonstrated a significant reduction in near-repeat residential burglary (within 0–5 days and 1–200 m from the victim) but no corresponding reduction in same-address repeat victimization (within 0–5 days). Analysis of police records explained this unexpected pattern, revealing an implementation issue had resulted in only 23% of victim addresses receiving the treatment pamphlet. Despite low-response rates to the online survey limiting the strength of the conclusions possible from this data source, trends were indicative of the pamphlet changing residents’ behaviors to reduce the opportunity for burglary. These results add support to prior findings demonstrating police can use victimization information to work in a targeted, timely manner and reduce the risk of burglary. It also emphasizes the importance of good data management practices when undertaking prevention initiatives to ensure programs are delivered as intended.

Identifying sites at risk from illicit metal detecting: from CRAVED to HOPPER

ABSTRACTArchaeological sites are at risk from acquisitive crime: this paper focuses in particular on illicit metal detecting. The effects of theft in this context are not merely financial, but have devastating impact on our knowledge and understanding of the site. Even where items are later recovered, we lose the vital clues about the precise context of an object. We therefore need to reduce the risk of theft occurring in the first place.This paper draws on case studies from England and presents a new methodology to assess which archaeological sites may be at risk from illicit metal detecting: ‘HOPPER’ identifies the characteristics of sites likely to be targeted by offenders looking for antiquities. In brief: History (a history of finds at the site); Open (the site has physical public access, and/or is documented in the public domain); Protection (protected status can act as a beacon for offenders); Publicity (site is known about or receiving new attention); Evasion (there are known ways to escape apprehension); and Repeat victimisation (The site has been a target before). The impact of HOPPER will be its use in the field to develop a pragmatic risk assessment applicable both in a local and international context.

Examining the extent to which repeat and near repeat patterns can prevent crime

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to examine the extent and variation in the estimates to which crime can be prevented using patterns of repeats and near repeats, and whether hotspot analysis complements these patterns.Design/methodology/approachCrime data for four study areas in New Zealand are used to examine differences in the extent of burglary repeat and near repeat victimisation. Hotspots of burglary are also created to determine the extent to which burglary repeats and near repeats spatially intersect hotspots.FindingsThe extent of repeats and near repeats varies, meaning there is variation in the estimated prevention benefits that repeat and near repeat patterns offer. In addition, at least half of the burglaries repeats and near repeats were not located within hotspots.Research limitations/implicationsThe use of other techniques for examining crime concentration could be used to improve the research observations.Practical implicationsBy showing that levels of repeats and near repeats vary, the extent to which these observations coincide in hotspots offers practitioners a better means of determining whether repeat and near repeat patterns are reliable for informing crime prediction and crime prevention activities.Originality/valueThe paper is the first known research study that explicitly measures the variation in the extent of repeats and near repeats and the spatial intersection of these patterns within crime hotspots. The results suggest that rather than considering the use of repeat and near repeat patterns as a superior method for predicting and preventing crime, value remains in using hotspot analysis for determining where crime is likely to occur, particularly when hotspot analysis emphasises other locations for resource targeting.