Developmental Education Research Articles

Experimental impacts of teacher professional development on adolescent socio-emotional skills, achievement, and hazardous child labor: Evidence from a remedial school program in Ecuador

We present findings of an experimental study exploring the role of socio-emotional skills in improving outcomes for youth enrolled in a remedial program in municipal schools in Quito, Ecuador. These at-risk youth often engaged in hazardous child labor, including some of the worst forms of child labor. The Young Potential Development program is an add-on curriculum and teacher professional development initiative that seeks to develop youth socio-emotional skills. We generally found no impacts on youth socio-emotional skills and other outcomes. We explore the lack of impacts with a rich fidelity of implementation and mechanism of change study.

교육개발인가, 교육발전인가?

Purpose: ‘Development’ is translated into ‘gaebal’ or ‘balgeon’ in Korean. However, if they are not differentiated when used with education, it muddles grasping the relationship between education and development. Therefore, this study examines how ‘gaebal’ and ‘balgeon’ are used in international education development cooperation by analyzing research on ‘education development’.
 Originality: The terminological choice is how to view the object referred to by each term, and so is the choice of ‘gaebal’ and ‘balgeon.’ In particular, education has both intrinsic and extrinsic nature, and the usage of ‘gaebal’ or ‘balgeon’ represents our approach toward education. Therefore, this study will contrast the challenges and underlying approach to international education development cooperation.
 Methodology: 24 research on education development were qualitatively analyzed. The collected articles were analyzed on two axes: the usage of the term for ‘gaebal’ or ‘balgeon’ and the senses distinction reflecting the value dimension of education.
 Result: The research articles were primarily classified into six categories which are located in four dimensions: Instrumental Development(Gaebal) Education; Developmental(Balgeon) Education toward Education Development; Educational Development(Balgeon) dotted with Education Gaebal; and Fossilized Education Development(Gaebal) Cooperation. A number of studies fall into the third area, where ‘balgeon’ is confused with ‘gaebal’, and the essence of education is limited to means. When education becomes means along with ‘gaebal’, education becomes a tool. Thus, the first and fourth dimensions also need to be reviewed.
 Conclusion and Implication: It coins with the paradigms of “Education for Development” and “Development as Education” by Yoo et al.(2019). The former corresponds to education development as ‘gaebal,’ in which education and individuals become means of economic growth. It shares Goulet's idea that development shrinks to economic growth, loses ethics, and paradoxically leads to underdevelopment. We need education development as ‘balgeon’ paradigm that uses economic growth as a means and aims for human development.

Ways of overcoming academic failures: A review article

Introduction. The article examines the problem of low learning outcomes of schoolchildren in the modern education system. The purpose of the article is to identify and summarize the ways of overcoming students’ academic failure from the standpoint of foreign and Russian studies for their use at schools. Materials and Methods. To achieve the aim of the review, 63 full-text sources were analyzed. The study used general research methods of theoretical knowledge, thematic content analysis, synthesis of theoretical foundations, and comparative method for identifying and summarizing research on ways of overcoming students’ academic failure in foreign and Russian theory and practice and their use at schools. The generalization of the research results was based of the systematic approach. Results. Analysis of the studies has shown that in order to overcome student failure at school, it is necessary to introduce practical methods in schools that will bring about a reduction in the level of unsuccessful students. Schools' work to involve parents in their children's education and school activities (engagement at home, engagement at school, academic socialization) has a positive impact on reducing student failure at school. A special role of the parent community is to develop students’ motivation to learn. The work of schools to integrate formal and non-formal education expands the educational space and contributes to overcoming school failure, developing the emotional, intellectual, communicative sphere, educational motivation and social advancement of students. The use of various forms of mentoring in schools mainly leads to the design of programs for students' personal growth, building their own professional path of self-development and developing motivation for learning. Using international experience in applying developmental programs in Russian schools will ensure equalization of starting opportunities for students with low socio-economic status. Conclusions. The review concludes that the introduction of ways to overcome the academic failure (parental involvement, supplementary education, using various forms of mentoring and international practices of developmental education programs) in the school practice will contribute to reducing the rate of student failure in school.

An Evaluation of the Assessment Practices and Remedial Teaching in the Implementation of Automatic Promotion Policy in Primary Schools of the South West and West Regions of Cameroon

An Evaluation of the Assessment Practices and Remedial Teaching in the Implementation of Automatic Promotion Policy in Primary Schools of the South West and West Regions of Cameroon

Teaching English to Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders: Challenges and Teaching Strategies

The current study aims at shedding light on the challenges that might be confronted while teaching English to students with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) and providing remedial teaching strategies that can facilitate teaching English to these special learners. Helping students to achieve their highest potential requires both an understanding of ASD and its characteristics, and the elements of successful program planning required addressing them. Students with ASD are individuals who each has unique strengths and needs. Thus, via analysing the previous literature about the topic and administering a structured questionnaire to twelve (12) English teachers at the University of El-Oued, Algeria investigating the challenges and the teaching strategies that can be used to remedy these challenges, this study attempts to provide a broad lines for a special English syllabus that best meet the needs of students with ASD.

ANALYSIS OF A LEARNER’S ENGLISH LANGUAGE ACQUISITION PROCESS

Foreign language acquisition process is challenging particularly there is less atmosphere to use the language in communication. In this article, one learner of English language in Uzbekistan has been observed and analysis process, inter language problems and several solutions are offered to improve his communications skills. Initially, learner profile is presented where all information has been taken from needs analysis and grammar point to remedial teaching is theoretically analyzed and specific lesson plan is offered to pass the learner’s from inter language.

BASIC SCIENCE CONCEPTS IN THE LENS OF DAVYDOV’S DEVELOPMENTAL INSTRUCTION: INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY FOR 6-7 GRADERS

The Developmental Instruction considers scientific concepts as mental tools with the main function to guide human actions in a certain domain. According to the Developmental Instruction, each concept stems from a goal-oriented activity that should be reconstructed for students from scratch if we want them to learn the concept properly. As Davydov emphasized, this helps students explore all necessary internals and limitations that can hardly be learned in a different way. Fundamental chemistry concepts such as “chemical element” and “chemical reaction” have a long history, and their predecessors underwent several turns and twists on the way to their modern forms. These pre-concepts originated in ancient times and guided the craft of substance transformations, and their modern descendants still do it. The goal-oriented actions of substance transformations are in the focus of our introductory curriculum. Students name the substances they work with using their own words and understanding. Students’ “provisional language” helps them discuss the results of their simple experiments and plan the follow-ups. As the work goes on, students develop their understanding toward the idea of conservation of elements in chemical reactions. Short essays containing no chemical names and formulas describe the relevant chemical transformations and provide the cultural or historical background. Our teaching experience shows that such kind of introduction turns the systematic chemistry course into the answer to the reasonable questions that the students have about substances and their transformations.

ORIGINS OF NATURAL SCIENCES: A TECHNOLOGICAL QUEST AS THE FIRST STEP

The general idea of an educational design is to deliver basic concepts (and pre-concepts) of future sciences to students, thus they will become students’ actual thinking instruments. According to Davydov, for this purpose we have to reconstruct the situation of the concept's origin and provide students’ work within this context with special modelling means (which can be, sometimes, extracted from the history of concept’s actual development). In this paper we present an overview of the introductory module of natural sciences developed according to the principles of Developmental Instruction. According to our analysis, “Nature laws” were introduced as the requirements towards human purposeful operations with “reluctant” natural material, which was transformed to special “things” (instruments, materials, supplies…) to suit human needs. As we remove the “contemporary coating” from well-known modern technologies and techniques, we will find traits of their ancient origins. Hence, we have made testing ancient technologies the foundation of our course. The whole discourse was changed: from the history of nature to the history of culture, from the actions of observing, describing and classifying to purposeful transformation and verification of hypotheses. Students’ work within the educational module includes: working over special texts, testing some fragments of technologies in hands-on experiments and constructing models. We will provide examples of students’ work over texts and labs, mediated by a special modelling tool – the technological chart.

Economic burden of limited English proficiency: A prevalence-based cost of illness study of its direct, indirect, and intangible costs.

The primary objective of the present study was to evaluate the economic burden of limited English proficiency (LEP) by estimating its direct, indirect, and intangible costs. A secondary objective was to assess the impact of variables on the economic burden. A cross-sectional single-arm descriptive study conducted in a learning disability clinic in a public medical college in Mumbai. The study cases (aged ≥8 years and ≤18 years) were recruited by non-probability sampling. A structured questionnaire was used to interview the parent to collect data related to direct and indirect costs. Intangible cost data were collected by documenting the willingness-to-pay value using the contingent valuation technique. A multivariate regression model was used to assess the impact of predictor variables on the costs. The direct, indirect, and intangible costs due to LEP were Indian Rupees (INR) 826,736, 3,828,220, and 1,906,300, respectively. Indirect costs comprised 82.2% of the total costs. Expenditure on tuition and remedial education comprised 39.86% and 14.08% of the indirect and direct costs, respectively. The average annual learning disability clinic costs were INR 2,169,146. The average annual total costs per student were INR 42,102. Higher socioeconomic status was predictive of increased "indirect costs", "total costs", and "intangible costs." LEP is a cost-intensive condition (indirect > intangible > direct costs). Non-medical costs are the costliest component of direct costs. Parental loss of earnings is the costliest component of indirect costs.

Validating the Cognitive Diagnostic Assessment and Assessing Students’ Mastery of ‘Parallel and Perpendicular Lines’ Using the Rasch Model

‘Parallel and Perpendicular Lines’ is an important topic that serves as a basis for the learning of a more advanced geometric concept in later years. Yet, this topic is hard to master by the students. To pinpoint students’ weaknesses in this topic, this study sought to develop a cognitive diagnostic assessment (CDA) to assess students’ mastery of ‘Parallel and Perpendicular Lines’. The validation of the CDA and the use of CDA in measuring students’ mastery of ‘Parallel and Perpendicular Lines’ was documented in this article. The content validation involved two subject matter experts, while the pilot test involved 154 Year Four students from Kedah state of Malaysia selected using cluster sampling. The experts' consensus on the relevancy of test items was captured by calculating the content validity index. The psychometric properties of items and reliability of assessment were analysed based on Rasch Measurement Model. The validity of the assessment content was supported with an acceptable content validity index of 1.00 (>.80). The findings of Rasch analysis span across all ranges of abilities level and hence fit students’ competence well. With an acceptable person separation index of 1.58 (> 1.50), person separation reliability of .74 (>.70), and KR-20 coefficient of .78 (>.70), the CDA developed is reliable. The findings of assessing students’ mastery level highlighted their weaknesses in defining the properties of perpendicular lines and drawing perpendicular lines. The findings of this study would encourage practitioners to utilise it in the mathematics classroom for diagnosing students’ weaknesses and hence plan for remedial instruction.

UPAYA GURU DALAM MENGATASI KESULITAN BELAJAR SISWA

Learning difficulties can be interpreted as a problem or condition where students experience obstacles in the learning process. Barriers experienced by students occur can be realized or not realized whether it is psychological, sociological, or the learning process. There is also a focus in this research, namely; Learning Difficulties Experienced by Class III Students at MI Miftahul Huda Tanjunganom Diwek Jombang, Aspects Affecting Students' Learning Difficulties, Teacher's Efforts in Overcoming Learning Difficulties for Class III Students. The purpose of this research is to find out what learning difficulties are experienced by Class III students at MI Miftahul Huda Tanjunganom Diwek Jombang, the factors that influence student learning difficulties, and the teacher's efforts in overcoming student learning difficulties. This research uses a qualitative research approach. Methods of data collection using observation, interviews, and documentation. The data analysis method uses data reduction, data presentation, conclusion drawing and verification. The method of checking the validity of the data uses data triangulation. The results of research on Teacher's Efforts in Overcoming Learning Difficulties for Class III Students are; Learning difficulties experienced by students are difficulties in mastering the material, mastering concepts, and mastering foreign languages. Aspects Affecting Student Learning, namely at least learning attention, low learning motivation, and very fast teacher delivery procedures. The teacher's efforts are providing tutorials to students, holding remedial teaching.

The Theoretical Basis of Developmental Instruction Supervision and Its Practical Applications for Instructional Supervision

The Theoretical Basis of Developmental Instruction Supervision and Its Practical Applications for Instructional Supervision

Technologization of Innovative Educational Processes in Higher Education Establishments

The needs of Ukraine’s economic development require the creation of new, innovative technologies that take into account changes in the social and spiritual life of young people, the need to form a harmonious personality and optimize the learning process. New pedagogical technologies are aimed primarily at “providing conditions for self-realization of student’s essential capabilities in various kinds of theoretical and practical activities, in dynamic life in the new market conditions”.
 An essential feature of modern innovation processes in the field of education and upbringing is their technologization – a strict compliance with the content and sequence of stages of innovation implementation.
 The difference between technology and methodology is a fundamental issue for modern pedagogics. Technology and methodology are distinguished by two main points: the guarantee of the final outcome and planning of the future educational process.
 The varieties of personality-centered pedagogical technologies include personality developmental teaching, productive teaching, personalized teaching and technology of higher labor, self-development, technology of humanism.
 Analyzing the features of higher pedagogical education technologization, the attention should be paid to an increase in the need for the use of new information technologies in the training of new generation specialists for modern educational systems. New information technologies (NIT) are defined as a set of methods and technological means of collecting, organizing, storing, processing, transmitting and presenting information that increases people’s knowledge and develops their capabilities to manage technological and social problems.
 Pedagogical technology is interpreted according to three aspects: the scientific aspect (pedagogical technology as a component of pedagogical science that creates pedagogical processes in pedagogical systems); procedural and descriptive aspect (description, process algorithm, a set of goals, content of methods and means to achieve guaranteed results according to the goal); procedural and effectual aspect (implementation of the technological process, functioning of all personal tools).

АКТУАЛЬНІСТЬ ВПРОВАДЖЕННЯ ПРОГРАМИ «ЛІКУВАЛЬНА ФІЗИЧНА КУЛЬТУРА ДЛЯ ДІТЕЙ МОЛОДШОГО ШКІЛЬНОГО ВІКУ З ФУНКЦІОНАЛЬНИМИ ПОРУШЕННЯМИ ПОСТАВИ В УМОВАХ ЗАГАЛЬНООСВІТНІХ НАВЧАЛЬНИХ ЗАКЛАДІВ»

In the article "Relevance of implementation of the program "Remedial physical education for children of primary school age with functional postural disorders in the conditions of general educational institutions" the priority of corrective classes in schools for children with postural disorders was researched, revealed and updated. Therapeutic physical education is not only a medical discipline that uses physical education for the purpose of treatment and rehabilitation of students, as well as disease prevention. To increase the effectiveness of exercises, the task of exercise therapy includes the use of pedagogical means of influence: developing confidence in one's abilities, a conscious attitude to classes and the need to actively participate in them. The form of therapeutic physical culture is the organizational form in which the means of therapeutic physical culture are used and the methods of exercise therapy are carried out. The methods of physical therapy are actually the tasks of physical therapy. The name of the exercise therapy method indicates the disease or pathological condition in which this method is used. Means of exercise therapy are active therapeutic factors, such as gymnastic exercises, physical exercises in water, walking, classes on simulators, etc. The article also examines the theoretical issues of training physical education teachers for the implementation of the program "Remedial physical education for children of primary school age with functional postural disorders in the conditions of general educational institutions", reveals the age-related anatomical and physiological features of the development of younger schoolchildren, the main causes of functional postural disorders in younger students schoolchildren in the conditions of general educational institutions and at home, the tasks of the program, the prospects for the formation of knowledge, abilities, skills and competences in the process of studying the program are described. Key words: therapeutic physical education, primary school age, functional postural disorders, round back, lateral curvature of the spine, general educational institutions, therapeutic physical education lesson, lesson structure.

ОСОБЛИВОСТІ ПСИХОЛОГО-ПЕДАГОГІЧНОГО СПІЛКУВАННЯ ВИКЛАДАЧА ЗІ СТУДЕНТАМИ В УМОВАХ СУЧАСНОГО ЗАКЛАДУ ОСВІТИ

The article reveals all management problems in the education system related to the instructor’s communication with students. Pedagogical communication is a means of implementiation of the content, methods and techniques of pedagogical influences aimed at the formation of a specialist. Through the expressive side of communication, the instructor infects the students with his attitude to science, arouses a lively interest in it. That is why the instructor and the student are direct participants in pedagogical interaction. Both business and interpersonal relations are established between them. Their cooperation in real interpersonal contacts is the social environment in which the formation of the personality of a specialist with higher education and the further development of the instructor’s personality takes place. It is in pedagogical interaction that each of them finds conditions for their own personal growth. The form of pedagogical interaction is pedagogical communication – verbal or non-verbal contact – «the luxury of human communication» (Antoine de Saint-Exupéry). Pedagogical communication contributes to the transferring to students the moral, national, civic values, and therefore it forms the student's spiritual world and presents a model of his future professional behavior. In order for pedagogical communication to be constructive, it is necessary to possess a psychological and pedagogical culture of communication. The organizational and management center of pedagogical interaction in the process of communication is the pedagogical position of the instructor: understanding, recognition and acceptance of the student. In order to successfully implement these positions, one must have pedagogical observation, empathy and psychological insight, possess the skills of active listening and the technique of asking questions, and use «I am the message». His ability to be a full-fledged subject of his own scientific and pedagogical activity and to develop the student's subject potential is often considered synonymous with the instructor’s professionalism. The task of developmental education is to help the student become a subject of educational and professional activity, a subject of self-development. Because of this, the instructor must make a special effort to organize pedagogical interaction, which is based on subject-subject relationships, determines the effectiveness of his pedagogical activity and promotes the development of the subjectivity of all participants in the pedagogical process. The concept of polysubject interaction is used to analyze this phenomenon. Communication based on the principle of subject-subject interaction requires the following qualities from each participant: to perceive the interlocutor as an individual with his own needs and interests; show interest in the partner, sympathize (empathy) with his successes or failures; to recognize the partner's right to disagree, to his own opinion, to choose behavior and responsibility for his choice. Adherence to this principle makes it possible to establish sincere, trusting relationships between instructors and students. It also makes it possible to correctly (politely, tactfully, courtesly) make remarks to the student, help him see his own mistakes, give him advice as to further self-improvement of his behavior. The relationship between instructors and students is characterized by a complex structure, the components of which are: motivational (interest in a partner and the need for a relationship with him; cognitive (perception and evaluation of the other; reflection on relationships and awareness of their difficulties; ideas about optimal relationships); emotional (satisfaction with existing relationships; mutual evaluative attitudes of partners; feeling of psychological security, comfort or tension, anxiety); behavioral (type of relationships and style of pedagogical communication; manner of behavior in a conflict situation; means of adjusting relationships and mutual influence). Key words: pedagogical communication, styles of communication, communicative act, psychological-pedagogical culture, psychological barrier, didactic communication, pedagogical interaction, the structure of interactions.

NĀṈKĀM TOḺIṞPURAṬCIYIṈĀL TAMIḺK KAṞṞAL KAṞPITTALIL ĒṞPAṬUM URUMĀṞṞAM [IMPACTS OF THE FOURTH INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION IN TAMIL PEDAGOGY

This study discusses the transformation of Tamil learning and pedagogy by the Fourth Industrial Revolution. The fourth industrial revolution is considered more important than the previous one. It is a much-needed revolution that will take the world to another level through the internet and artificial intelligence. This revolution is going to seed various transformations in all sectors. Undoubtedly, this industrial revolution will create new waves in the education sector. Especially in the context of Tamil learning and teaching, this revolution will lead to necessary changes. The education sector will face the most critical technical changes such as Virtual Reality (VR), Augmented Reality (AR), and Artificial Intelligence in learning and teaching. This revolutionary learning and teaching method leverage students' thinking and experience. Through this enhanced experience, the student's understanding deepens and becomes more easily relatable to everyday life. This study examines teachers' new learning and teaching opportunities through the fourth industrial revolution, not only for students. It will help teachers strengthen their teaching methods, explore deficiencies, and enrich remedial teaching.

Miles to Go Before We Sleep: A Two-Part Content Analysis of Representations of Equity in the Dev Ed’r Discourse Community

ABSTRACT This article continues the conversation begun in Armstrong’s (2020) call to Dev Ed’rs kept awake by uncertainty about their professional identity and the future of “The Field” of developmental education and college literacy. Through the lenses of critical discourse analysis and discourse communities, the author examined how Dev Ed’rs define equity and whom they cite. The two-pronged content analysis uncovered a lack of definitional work or citations to ground Dev Ed’r discussions of equity. The article advances four steps for (re)claiming the language of equity and, with it, The Field’s professional identity: (1) establishing a definition of equity for The Field, (2) grounding the definition in the literature, (3) incorporating the definition into professional conversations, and (4) amplifying Dev Ed’r scholarship engaging with equity.

Состояние повышения квалификации специалистов Центров коррекционно-развивающего обучения и реабилитации в вопросах оценки качества образования воспитанников с тяжелыми множественными нарушениями в Республике Беларусь

In 1999, the Republic of Belarus began to educate children with severe multiple disorders (SMD). For this purpose, new special educational institutions – correction and development training centres (CDTC) – were opened across the country. Curricula for preschoolers with SMD appeared only in 2011, and curricula approved by the Ministry of Education of the Republic of Belarus appeared in 2014. Before 2011, teachers were more engaged in the care and supervision of preschoolers with SMD than in the actual educational process. Currently, changes are taking place in preschool education. The education of children with SMD should be built on a competency basis where the formation of their life competencies should play the leading role. The need to assess the quality of such education has emerged, and, consequently, the issue of professional training of specialists of CDTC in this direction. The aim of the article is to determine the possibilities of the system of professional development of teachers of specialized institutions on the issues of quality assessment of education of pupils with severe multiple disorders at the present stage in the Republic of Belarus. The basic methods in the study of this problem were questioning and content analysis. The experimental base of the study is represented by 63 state educational institutions “Centre for Corrective and Developmental Education” (Brest, Vitebsk, Gomel, Grodno, Mogilev, Minsk regions and the city of Minsk, Republic of Belarus), as well as 8 institutions providing professional development of CDTC personnel (Brest, Vitebsk, Gomel, Grodno, Minsk regions, the city of Minsk, Republic of Belarus). The study involved 345 respondents: 334 teachers of CDTC and 11 employees of professional development institutions. The study was conducted in 2020. The article presents the author’s view on assessing the quality of education of preschool children with SMD, highlights the results of the empirical study, and substantiates the possibility of changing the training of teachers of CDTC in the context of professional development institutions. The obtained data allow us to see a holistic picture of the modern system of professional development for special teachers on the problems of assessing the quality of education of preschool children with SMD, which further allows to adjust the training programs of professional development in specialized institutions (Academy of Postgraduate Education, Institutes of Education Development), to include the most popular topics in their content.

Four-Tier Thermodynamics Diagnostic Test (4T-TDT) to Identify Student Misconception

There are limited studies on the diagnosis of thermodynamics misconceptions using a four-tier instrument diagnostic test. Therefore, this identifies the misconceptions in thermodynamics material. The survey research was conducted on 577 students at SMAN in Semarang, Central Java. Students were selected using a simple random sampling technique. Identification of student misconceptions was done using the Four Tier Thermodynamics Diagnostic Test (4T-TDT). Students’ conceptual understanding was calculated using the percentage technique. The results of this study indicate that many students still have misconceptions about the concept of thermodynamics. The findings are expected to be a strategic step for designing appropriate remedial teaching.
 Keywords: thermodynamics, misconception, four-tier diagnostic test, alternative conception

Content Analysis of Abstracts Published in Autism Journals in 2021: The year in Review.

PurposeEver since Leo Kanner first described autism in 1943, the research in this field has grown immensely. In 2021 alone, 5837 SCOPUS indexed documents were published with a title that contained the words: “autism”, “autistic”, or “ASD”. The purpose of this study was to examine the most common topics of autism research in 2021 and present a geographical contribution to this research.MethodsWe performed a content analysis of 1102 abstracts from the articles published in 11 Autism journals in 2021. The following journals, indexed by the SCOPUS database, were included: Autism, Autism Research, Molecular Autism, Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities, Review Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, Advances in Autism, Autism and Developmental Language Impairments, and Autism in Adulthood.ResultsAccording to the analysis, the main research topics were: mental health, social communication, social skills, quality of life, parenting stress, ADHD, Covid-19, self-efficacy, special education, and theory of mind. In relation to geographic distribution, most studies came from the USA, followed by the UK, Australia, and Canada.ConclusionResearch topics were aligned with the priorities set by stakeholders in autism, most notably persons with autism themselves and their family members. There is a big gap in research production between developed countries and developing countries.