Reliability Test Research Articles

Financial Literacy Practices of Teachers

Embracing sound financial literacy practices can empower teachers to build a financially literate community. In this context, this study aimed to determine the level of teachers’ financial literacy practices. Data for this descriptive study was collected from 56 teachers using a researcher-made instrument that has gone through rigorous tests of validity and reliability. The ensuing analysis showed a low level of financial literacy among teacher-respondents. Additionally, no significant difference was found in the teachers’ financial literacy practices based on age and civil status. In contrast, a significant difference was found in teachers’ financial literacy practices based on groupings by educational attainment and family income. Meanwhile, a significant difference was found when the same data was analyzed based on the length of service and grouping by needs and wants. The findings of this paper call for a salary increase for the teachers, loans on a legal basis, seminars, and training for teachers. Keywords: Financial literacy practices, teachers, Negros Occidental, Philippines

Classroom Management Skills of Public Elementary School Teachers

Classroom management skills are necessary for public elementary school teachers to keep their classrooms running smoothly. These skills help teachers set clear rules, maintain order, and create a positive environment where students can learn and grow. In this context, this study aimed to determine the classroom management skills of elementary teachers in a Public Elementary School in a medium-sized division for the School Year 2023-2024. Data for this descriptive study was collected from the participation of thirty-nine (39) respondents in one of the large-size schools within a medium-sized division; therefore, Purposive Sampling was utilized using a self-made data gathering instrument that has passed the stringent tests of validity and reliability. Mostly, teachers’ classroom management skills were at a very high level. Subsequent analysis indicated no significant difference in the level of teachers’ classroom management skills. The findings specify that while teachers commonly identify the importance of effective classroom management, there is a need for heading for professional development creativities to support them in refining their skills. As a result, the larger suggestion is the importance of participating in continuous training and resources to allow teachers to expand their classroom management skills, thus nurturing a more conducive learning environment for all students. Keywords: Education, classroom management skills, public elementary school teachers, Negros Occidental

Effects of ZrO2 Nano-Particles’ Incorporation into SnAgCu Solder Alloys: An Experimental and Theoretical Study

This study investigates the mechanism and effects of incorporating different ZrO2 nano-particles into SAC0307 solder alloys. ZrO2 nano-powder and nano-fibers in 0.25–0.5 wt% were added to the SAC0307 alloy to prepare composite solder joints by surface mount technology. The solder joints were shear tested before and after a 4000 h long 85 °C/85% RH corrosive reliability test. The incorporation of ZrO2 nano-particles enhanced the initial shear force of the solder joint, but they decreased the corrosion resistance in the case of 0.5 wt%. SEM, EDS, and FIB analysis revealed intensive growth of SnO2 on the solder joint surfaces, leading to the formation of Sn whiskers. Density functional theory (DFT) simulations showed that, despite Sn being able to bond to the surface of ZrO2, the binding energy was weak, and the whole system was therefore unstable. It was also found that ZrO2 nano-particles refined the microstructure of the solder joints. Decreased β-Sn grain size and more dispersed intermetallic compounds were observed. The microstructural refinement caused mechanical improvement of the ZrO2 composite solder joints by dispersion strengthening but could also decrease their corrosion resistance. While ZrO2 nano-particles improved the solder joint mechanical properties, their use is recommended only in non-corrosive environments, such as microelectronics for space applications.

The Influence of Content and Learning Application Usage on Mandarin Vocabulary Among Students at Prima Indonesia University in Medan

This study aims to analyze the impact of content and learning applications on Mandarin vocabulary enhancement among students at Prima Indonesia University in Medan. Employing a quantitative approach, the research involved 36 respondents selected through purposive sampling. The sample selection criteria were based on the use of content and learning applications to improve Mandarin vocabulary. Data were collected through questionnaires and analyzed using SPSS with a series of statistical tests, including validity and reliability tests, classical assumption tests, multiple linear regression analysis, as well as F and t tests. The results revealed that content had no significant influence on Mandarin vocabulary skills, while learning applications had a significant impact.The study concludes that the integration of digital technology in Mandarin language learning can accelerate vocabulary acquisition. These findings provide valuable insights into the effectiveness of using learning applications in enhancing Mandarin language skills at the university level.

The Psychometric Properties of the Persian Version of the Relaxation, Meditation, and Mindfulness Experiences Questionnaire Utilized Among Patients with Cancer: A Cross-Sectional Study in Iran.

Mindfulness is increasingly recognized as an effective strategy for managing chronic illnesses and improving mental well-being in cancer patients. This study sought to adapt and validate a Persian version of Relaxation, Meditation, and Mindfulness Experiences Tracker Questionnaire trait month 3.1″ (P-RMMtm 3.1) for use with Iranian cancer patients. This cross-sectional study was conducted in several hospitals affiliated with Kerman University of Medical Sciences in southeastern Iran. Validity and reliability tests were administered between March and December 2023. Results showed strong psychometric properties, with a six-factor solution explaining 72.387% of the variance. The identified factors were mindful transcendence, mindful relaxation, mindful emotion, mindful focus/awareness, mindful quiet, and mindful action. Confirmatory factor analysis indices were generally satisfactory (χ2/d.f. = 2.253, RMSEA = 0.079, GFI = 0.833, CFI = 0.923, and IFI = 0.924). Cronbach's alpha values for the RMMtm 3.1 factors ranged from 0.802 to 0.89. In conclusion, the Persian version of RMMtm 3.1 is a reliable instrument for assessing relaxation, meditation, and mindfulness experiences in Iranian cancer patients. Its concise format makes it suitable for future research with this population.

Relationship between the Reliability of Tennis-Specific Change of Direction (77COD) Test and Squat Jump–Countermovement Jump in Adolescent Tennis Players

The aim of this study was to investigate the reliability of the tennis-specific change of direction (77COD) test with vertical jump tests (Squat Jump and Countermovement Jump) in adolescent tennis players. A total of 58 athletes (31 girls, 27 boys) actively playing tennis, with an average age of 10.57 ± 2.54 years, participated in the study. Tests and retests were completed within 2 weeks. Bland–Altman (B&A) plots were established and Pearson’s correlation analysis was conducted on the 77COD, CMJ, and SJ tests. Simple linear regression analysis (enter method) was used to determine the significant predictors of the 77COD variable from the SJ-CMJ variables. The SJ and CMJ were found to be highly negatively correlated with the 77COD test (−0.72 ≤ r ≤ −0.74). The test–retest reliability of the 77COD test was found to be very high, with an intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) of 0.95. Our findings showed that the 77COD test is suitable for determining COD ability in adolescent tennis players. In addition, vertical jump heights are an informative and practical performance indicator for 77COD. In conclusion, the 77COD test is a COD test that can be used in coaching practices without the need for complex testing materials.

Assessing motivational biases in brain and behavior: Event-related potential and response time concomitants of the approach-avoidance task.

The approach-avoidance task (AAT) is designed to measure implicit motivated action biases instantiated by emotional stimuli and alterations in such biases that drive psychiatric disorder. While some research has measured AAT event-related potential (ERP) correlates to establish bias sensitivity even at a neural level, a lack of work with unpleasant, pleasant, and neutral stimuli together and a common focus on psychiatric disorder-matched (rather than generally emotional) content limits conclusions that can be drawn. Thus, current work extends the AAT literature by testing ERP modulations across normatively unpleasant, pleasant, and neutral conditions; and supporting the task's use as an individual difference assessment, it also provides data on AAT reliability and initially explores anxiety-related effects when stimuli are not disorder-matched. In 38 participants including 19 anxiety treatment-seeking individuals, 32 sensor electroencephalography revealed robust N100, N200, and late positive potential (LPP) ERP components and bias-consistent modulations for unpleasant images (reduced N200s on unpleasant push relative to pull trials; enhanced LPP for unpleasant compared to neutral trials). Meanwhile, modulations were less consistent with emotion-driven bias for other conditions-that is, LPPs were enhanced but N200 was not modulated for pleasant images, and for neutral images, N200 was unexpectedly enhanced on push compared to pull trials. Following these analyses, reliability tests revealed excellent raw ERP reliabilities but lower reliabilities for modulation scores, and comparing treatment- to non-treatment-seeking groups showed no preliminary indication of ERP modulation changes when stimuli are not personally relevant. How these findings together inform understanding of AAT as a measure of bias is discussed.

RETROSPECTIVE ANALYSIS IN HYPOTHESIS TESTING TO EVALUATE INDONESIA'S GINI RATIO AFTER COVID-19 PANDEMIC

The study highlighted three essential roles of retrospective analysis in hypothesis testing, particularly as a priori analysis, post hoc analysis, and sensitivity analysis. These approaches were applied to the Gini ratio data sourced from the National Socioeconomic Survey Indonesia 2023 to examine the income inequality level in Indonesia. The sample size, statistical power, and effect size for the one-sample t-test are evaluated by aid G*Power software. The test results show that for a sample size of 10, at the 95% confidence interval, there is not enough evidence to show that the Gini ratio in 2023 is smaller than 0.4. A retrospective analysis using G*power software reveals that for a sample size of 20 at the same confidence interval, there is enough evidence to suggest that the Gini ratio is statistically significant at less than 0.4 with a power of analysis of 90.8% and an effect size of 0.76. This study has important implications in hypothesis testing, especially in retrospective analysis, since understanding the effect of sample size and effect size makes it possible for academics or practitioners to optimize hypothesis testing and generate more accurate and reliable test results.

Pengaruh Disiplin Kerja dan Budaya Organisasi terhadap Kinerja Karyawan pada PT.Ambar Borneo di Sangatta Utara

The influence of work discipline and organizational culture of employee performance at PT.Ambar Borneo or Ambar Borneo company, North Sangatta. This study uses a quantitative descriptive method. The purpose of this study is to test how the influence of work discipline and organizational culture on employee performance at PT.Ambar Borneo in North Sangatta. The population in this study amounted to 40 respondents from employees of PT.Ambar Borneo in North Sangatta on Jl.Poros Kabo, Kel. Swarga Bara, Kec.Sangatta Utara, Kabupaten Kutai Timur. The independent variables in this study are work discipline and organizational culture, and the dependent variable in this study is performance. The results of data analysis are processed with SPSS version 26. Data collection techniques are based on primary data from observations, interviews, questionnaires, and documentation.This study uses data analysis techniques for validity and reliability tests, classical assumption tests, multiple linear regression analysis, hypothesis tests, and dominant tests. The results of the study that the variables of work discipline and organizational culture simultaneously have a significant effect on performance.

Pengaruh Konsep Green Human Resources Management, Kepemimpinan Transformasional, dan Komitmen Organisasi terhadap Kinerja Organisasi yang Dimediasi Praktik Implementasi Green Human Resources Management PT XX

Purpose: To find out how GHRM, Transformational Leadership and Organizational Commitment have an influence on organizational performance mediated by GHRM implementation practices Research methodology: This study uses a quantitative research method. The sample size based on Slovin's estimate at a 95% confidence level is 100 respondents from 200 employees. In this study, a random sampling technique was used. This study uses the Smart PLS 4.0 program and uses analytical methods in the form of descriptive analysis, validity tests, reliability tests, R-square tests, and hypothesis tests. Results: Organizational performance is mediated by GHRM implementation strategies; the GHRM variable has no visible positive impact. Through the practice of GHRM implementation, the transformational leadership variable has a large and beneficial impact on organizational performance. Organizational performance is influenced by three variables, namely organizational commitment, transformational leadership, and GHRM. Limitations: The need to improve GHRM in companies by implementing practices aimed at improving GHRM Contribution: This study introduces the concept of GHRM to further demonstrate that sustainable and environmentally friendly HRM practices are essential to improving organizational performance and increasing organizational commitment. Very useful to be applied in a corporate environment.

CONSENSUS CLASSROOM CLIMATE INVENTORY: SCALE DEVELOPMENT AND VALIDATION

Science education is a key area of research, largely due to its inherent complexity and challenges. Various teaching methods have been developed to address these difficulties, which include the consensus classroom climate. However, no standardized tool has been created to evaluate the consensus within a classroom. This study aimed to develop and validate the Consensus Classroom Climate Inventory (CCCI), an instrument designed to measure the consensus climate of a classroom. The research was conducted in two phases: (1) initial item pool development based on an extensive literature review and (2) expert panel review for content validation. The resulting 29-item scale was pilot-tested with 120 freshmen students from a state university. Exploratory factor analysis using SMART-PLS yielded four distinct factors: Student Agency, Collaborative Learning Environment, Inclusive and Flexible Learning, and Student Autonomy. The final scale consisted of 23 items. Confirmatory factor analysis demonstrated strong factor loadings (>0.8) for all items, indicating good construct validity. Model fit indices suggested a generally good fit, though some indices indicated room for improvement. Reliability analysis revealed high internal consistency across all factors. The CCCI shows promise as a reliable and valid tool for assessing consensus classroom climate, though further refinement is recommended to enhance model fit. This instrument can assist educators in evaluating the consensus climate of Science classrooms and help educators enhance teaching to improve students’ Science learning. Keywords: consensus classroom climate, factor analysis, scale development, reliability test, validity test

Exploring digital competencies in higher education: design and validation of instruments for the era of Industry 5.0

IntroductionIndustry 5.0 is the next phase of industrial work that integrates robots and artificial intelligence to boost productivity and economic growth. It emphasizes a balance between human creativity and technological precision, built on three pillars: human centrality, sustainability, and resilience. Corporations and educational institutions must adopt an integrated approach to training their future workforce, emphasizing digital and key competencies such as creativity, communication, collaboration, and critical thinking. Higher education institutions must measure digital competencies and other key Industry 5.0 competencies to prepare students for a sustainable future. However, there is a need to identify appropriate scientific instruments that can comprehensively evaluate these competencies.MethodsThis study conducted a Systematic Literature Review to analyze the existing digital competency assessment instruments in higher education from 2013-2023. The focus was on instruments that measure digital competencies and core competencies for Industry 5.0, such as creativity, communication, collaboration, and critical thinking. The search process began with a strategy applied across various databases, including ERIC, Google Scholar, ProQuest, Scopus, and Web of Science, to cover a broad range of literature on the design and validation of digital competency assessment tools.ResultsThis search generated a total of 9,563 academic papers. Inclusion, exclusion, and quality filters were applied to select 112 articles for detailed analysis. Among these 112 articles, 46 focused on designing and validating digital competency assessment instruments in higher education. Within the reviewed literature, surveys and questionnaires emerged as the predominant methods utilized for this purpose. This study found a direct relationship between digital competencies and essential skills like communication and critical thinking.DiscussionThe study concludes that assessment tools should integrate a wide range of competencies, and students and educators should be actively involved in developing these skills. Future research should focus on designing tools that effectively evaluate these competencies in dynamic work contexts. Assessment instruments should cover a broader range of competencies, including creativity and collaboration, to meet the demands of Industry 5.0. Reliable assessments of digital competencies and soft skills are crucial, with a need for appropriate reliability tests that do not impact students’ preparedness for labor market challenges.

Experimental Analysis of Cavitation Erosion: Parameter Sensitivity and Testing Protocols

The scientific goal of this study was to investigate the effects of various parameters on cavitation-induced erosion, with the aim to enhance the understanding and assessment of cavitation resistance in hydraulic systems. Cavitation erosion poses significant challenges to the durability and efficiency of hydraulic components, such as those found in hydropower plants and pumping stations. Prompted by the need to improve the reliability of cavitation testing and material assessment, this research conducted a comprehensive sensitivity analysis of a cavitation jet apparatus (CJA). This study employed an experimental platform that consisted of a vertical cylindrical test tank, a submerged nozzle, and an aluminum sample. By examining a range of orifice diameters, this research identified that smaller diameters led to increased erosion intensity, with the most pronounced effects observed at a diameter of 2 mm. Furthermore, various standoff distances (SoDs) were tested, which revealed that shorter distances resulted in greater erosion, with the highest impact noted at an SoD of 5 cm. This study also evaluated different nozzle geometries, where it was found that a 132° conical sharped edges nozzle, combined with an orifice diameter of 2 mm and an SoD of 5 cm, produced the most severe erosion. Conversely, chamfered edges nozzles and a commercial nozzle (MEG2510) with an SoD of 10 cm or greater showed reduced erosion. These results highlight that by standardizing the testing duration to 1200 s, the CJA could reliably assess the cavitation resistance of materials. This study established a clear relationship between increased pressure and higher impact forces, which led to more severe erosion. The findings underscore the effectiveness of the CJA in evaluating material resistance under various cavitation conditions, thus addressing a critical need for reliable cavitation testing tools.

Development and Psychometric Evaluation of the Sexual Life Quality Evaluation Tool for Patients With Coronary Heart Disease.

Patients with coronary heart disease (CHD) will have a series of sexual problems, and their sexual life quality can be affected. However, a standardised evaluation tool for patients with CHD was lacking. Therefore, this study aimed to develop a sexual life quality questionnaire for patients with CHD and to evaluate its psychometric properties. Based on previous phenomenological studies, literature analysis and group discussion, questionnaire items were formed. After two rounds of expert consultation and pre-survey, the questionnaire items were modified. Items were screened by item analysis. Exploratory factor analysis and confirmatory factor analysis were used to explore and confirm the structure of the questionnaire. Content validity and criterion validity were evaluated using the expert consultation and correlation analysis, respectively. The questionnaire reliability was evaluated using internal consistency, split half reliability, and test-retest reliability. The sexual life quality questionnaire of patients with CHD was developed, which included two versions: male version and female version. The male version of the questionnaire contains 3 dimensions and 20 items, while the female version contains 3 dimensions and 17 items. After reliability and validity test, the two versions of the questionnaire have good reliability and validity. In this study, the sexual life quality questionnaire of patients with CHD was developed and its psychometric properties were confirmed, which can be used to evaluate the sexual life quality of patients with CHD. The development of a sexual life quality evaluation tool for patients with coronary heart disease to provide objective and quantitative tools for clinical staff to evaluate patients' sexual life status. Patients were invited to participate in a questionnaire survey for this study.

Improving the Efficiency of Software Reliability Demonstration Testing by Introducing Testing Effectiveness

For highly reliable software systems, it is expensive, time consuming, or even infeasible to perform reliability testing via a conventional software reliability demonstration testing (SRDT) plan. Moreover, in the traditional SRDT approach, the various characteristics of the software system or test sets are not considered when making the testing schemes. Some studies have focused on the effect of software testability on SRDT, but only limited situations were discussed, and many theoretical and practical problems have been left unresolved. In this paper, an extended study on the quantitative relation between test effectiveness (TE) and test effort for SRDT is proposed. Theoretical derivation is put forward by performing statistical analysis for the test suite according to TE. The combinations of all the cases of zero-failure and revealed nonzero failure, as well as discrete-type software and continuous-type software, are studied with the corresponding failure probability models constructed. That is, zero-failure and nonzero failure, as well as discrete-type software and continuous-type software, respectively, constitute the symmetry and asymmetry of SRDT. Finally, we illustrated all the models and performed applications on the Siemens program suite. The experimental results show that within the same limitation of requirements and confidence levels, this approach can effectively reduce the number of test cases and the test duration, i.e., accelerate the test process and improve the efficiency of the SRDT.

Measuring internalized health-related stigma across health conditions: development and validation of the I-HEARTS Scale.

Health-related stigma and its internalization among individuals with chronic health conditions contribute to impaired mental and physical health and quality of life. Research on health-related stigma has been siloed, with disease-specific measures that may not capture the experiences of individuals with multiple health conditions and that prevent comparisons across health conditions. The current study aimed to develop and test a transdiagnostic measure of internalized health-related stigma for use among adults with different physical health conditions. An existing measure of internalized mental health stigma was adapted to assess stigma due to chronic physical health conditions following COSMIN procedures, with input from advisory boards of community members living with a range of stigmatized health conditions (obesity, type 1 and type 2 diabetes, skin diseases, HIV, chronic pain, and cancers) and of health professionals who specialized in these conditions. The new Internalized Health-Related Stigma (I-HEARTS) Scale was tested in an online sample of 300 adults with these health conditions, recruited from ResearchMatch. Additional psychosocial measures of mental health and quality of life were administered, and participants provided information about their health conditions and demographic characteristics. Exploratory factor analysis and tests of reliability and validity were conducted to determine the psychometric properties of the I-HEARTS Scale, and k-means clustering and receiver of characteristic curve analysis were used to determine a clinically meaningful cutoff score indicating high levels of internalized stigma. Factor analysis results yielded a 25-item scale with a 3-factor solution, with subscales of Perceived and Anticipated Stigma, Stereotype Application and Self-Devaluation, and Stigma Resistance. Psychometric properties for internal consistency, inter-item and item-total correlations, and test-retest reliability were strong. Certain demographics (e.g., younger age) and characteristics related to health conditions (e.g., greater symptom severity) were associated with higher levels of internalized stigma. I-HEARTS Scale scores correlated moderately to strongly with related but distinct psychosocial measures, and a cutoff score of 3.40 or higher on the 1-7 rating scale was determined to indicate clinically meaningful levels of internalized stigma. The I-HEARTS Scale is a reliable and valid measure for the assessment of internalized health-related stigma among adults with varied stigmatized chronic health conditions. STUDY PRE-REGISTRATION: https://osf.io/84c5d/?view_only=87238512f6d6475c87f8f64280a8a15f .

THE INFLUENCE OF SERVICE QUALITY AND PRICE ON PURCHASE DECISIONS IN CLOTHING STORES AT PARUNG MARKET

This study aims to identify the influence of service quality and price on the purchase decisions of clothing at stores in Parung Market, both partially and simultaneously. The research is associative and quantitative, with consumers of Parung Market stores as the subjects. The sample consists of 90 individuals selected using Slovin’s formula. Data collection was done through questionnaires, and the data were analyzed using various tests, such as validity and reliability tests, classical assumption tests, linear regression, correlation coefficient, determination coefficient, and partial and simultaneous hypothesis testing. All analyses were performed using SPSS version 25. The results show that service quality affects purchase decisions, with a positive relationship demonstrated by the regression equation. The correlation coefficient indicates a fairly strong relationship between service quality and purchase decisions. In addition, price has a significant influence on purchase decisions, with a higher correlation coefficient compared to service quality. Simultaneously, both service quality and price together influence purchase decisions. This relationship is strengthened by the high and significant correlation coefficient. The conclusion of this study is that both service quality and price, individually or together, play an important role in influencing consumer purchase decisions at Parung Market.

Testing Validity and Reliability of Cross-linguistic Lexical Task— Turkish (CLT-TR) in Preschoolers with and without at Risk of Language Disorder

Testing Validity and Reliability of Cross-linguistic Lexical Task— Turkish (CLT-TR) in Preschoolers with and without at Risk of Language Disorder

Penerapan Metode Mind Mapping Menggunakan Aplikasi Draw.Io Terhadap Pemahaman Konsep pada Mata Pelajaran Teknologi Informasi & Komunikasi di MA Negeri 1 Kuningan

This study aims to determine students' understanding of concepts by using the Mind Mapping method using Draw.io application in the subject of Information and Communication Technology at MA Negeri 1 Kuningan. The method used used a quantitative approach with the type of quasi-experimental method with a pretest-posttest control group design. The sample used in this study was divided into 2 classes (experimental and control) with a total of 62 students. The data collection technique used is using tests/questions and questionnaires. The data analysis techniques used were validity tests, reliability tests, normality tests, homogeneity tests, hypothesis tests (t tests). This study aims to determine students' understanding of concepts by using the Mind Mapping method using Draw.io application in the subject of Information and Communication Technology at MA Negeri 1 Kuningan. The method used used a quantitative approach with the type of quasi-experimental method with a pretest-posttest control group design. The sample used in this study was divided into 2 classes (experimental and control) with a total of 62 students. The data collection technique used is using tests/questions and questionnaires. The data analysis techniques used were validity tests, reliability tests, normality tests, homogeneity tests, hypothesis tests (t tests). The results of this study show that the results of the application of the mind mapping method using the application draw.io there is a significant difference, as evidenced by the results of the research, students are able to understand the material presented. There was an increase in student understanding as seen from the average of the previous year

Efektivitas Penggunaan Media Wordwall untuk Meningkatkan Minat Belajar Siswa Kelas VII SMPN 1 Cipicung

The purpose of this study is to increase the effectiveness of woodwall media on the learning interest of SMPN 1 Cipicung students. The method used in this study uses a quantitative approach with pre-experimental designs (non-designs) in the form of intact-group comparison). The instruments used are observation, interviews, and questionnaires. The research data obtained from the data of the results of the questionnaire that was declared valid using the instrument test, namely the validity and reliability test. Data analysis techniques used normality tests, homogeneity tests, and t-tests. The results of data analysis show that ICT learning using wordwall media has been effectively applied to increase the learning interest of grade VII students of SMPN 1 Cipicung. In the delivery of learning materials, it shows the effect of direct involvement between teachers and students so that it can facilitate the teaching and learning process so that the expected goals can be achieved, especially in increasing students' interest in learning.