Reliability Of Electronic Devices Research Articles

A stochastic encoder using point defects in two-dimensional materials

While defects are undesirable for the reliability of electronic devices, particularly in scaled microelectronics, they have proven beneficial in numerous quantum and energy-harvesting applications. However, their potential for new computational paradigms, such as neuromorphic and brain-inspired computing, remains largely untapped. In this study, we harness defects in aggressively scaled field-effect transistors based on two-dimensional semiconductors to accelerate a stochastic inference engine that offers remarkable noise resilience. We use atomistic imaging, density functional theory calculations, device modeling, and low-temperature transport experiments to offer comprehensive insight into point defects in WSe2 FETs and their impact on random telegraph noise. We then use random telegraph noise to construct a stochastic encoder and demonstrate enhanced inference accuracy for noise-inflicted medical-MNIST images compared to a deterministic encoder, utilizing a pre-trained spiking neural network. Our investigation underscores the importance of leveraging intrinsic point defects in 2D materials as opportunities for neuromorphic computing.

Applications and Challenges of AI in PCB X-ray Inspection: A Comprehensive Study

As printed circuit boards (PCBs) continue to evolve in complexity and miniaturization, the demand for robust and efficient inspection techniques has become paramount in ensuring the quality and reliability of electronic devices. The application of machine learning and deep learning techniques has revolutionized PCB inspection in recent years, enabling the ability to automate and improve numerous elements of the process. In this paper, a comprehensive analysis is performed on the applications and challenges of artificial intelligence (AI), encompassing techniques of deep learning and machine learning, in the domain of PCB X-ray scrutiny. The main focus of this research centers around defect detection, identification of components and layers, deep learning algorithms for image reconstruction, as well as the identification of defects and features in advanced packaging. This study examines the current cutting-edge advancements in each of these areas, closely examining the existing methodologies and technologies employed. Furthermore, it delves into the limitations and challenges inherent in PCB X-ray inspection, such as the unavailability of data, computational demands, and the interpretability of models. In addition, this article offers prospective insights and presents promising avenues like application of generative adversarial networks and deep learning reconstruction methods for future exploration.

Effects of Sn addition in W-doped Ag paste against electrochemical corrosion and sulfurization

Purpose This study aims to address these challenges by enhancing the resistance of Ag-based pastes to corrosion and sulfurization, thereby improving their performance and weatherability in high-power and high-frequency electronic applications. Design/methodology/approach This study investigates the influence of Sn doping in W-doped Ag paste to enhance resistance against electrochemical corrosion and sulfurization. A systematic examination was conducted using transient liquid phase sintering and solid–liquid inter-diffusion techniques to understand the microstructural and electrochemical properties. Findings This study found that Sn addition in W-doped Ag paste significantly improves its resistance to electrochemical corrosion and sulfurization. The sintering process at 600°C led to the formation of an Ag2WO4 phase at the grain boundaries, which, along with the presence of Sn, effectively inhibited the growth of Ag2WO4 grains. The 0.5% Sn-doped samples exhibited optimal anti-corrosion properties, demonstrating a longer grain boundary length and a passivation effect that significantly reduced the corrosion rate. No Ag2S phase was detected in the weatherability tests, confirming the enhanced durability of the doped samples. Originality/value The findings of this study highlight the potential of Sn-doped Ag-W composites as a promising material for electronic components, particularly in environments prone to sulfurization and corrosion. By improving the anti-corrosion properties and reducing the grain size, this study offers a new approach to extending the lifespan and reliability of electronic devices, making a significant contribution to the development of advanced materials for high-power and high-frequency applications.

Molecular dynamics study of the effect of composition on elastic properties of silicon oxynitride films

Understanding the mechanical properties of silicon oxynitride (a-SiON), a key insulating material, is vital for electronic device design and reliability. Though the effects of fabrication conditions on a-SiON have been studied, the underlying relationship between its atomic-scale structure and mechanical properties remains unclear. This study investigates the relationship between elasticity and atomic-scale structures in a-SiON by molecular dynamics simulations with a universal graph neural network interatomic potential. The bulk modulus increases from 49 to 150 GPa with higher N content. N atoms form N2 molecules under O-rich conditions, hindering bulk modulus increase, and form an Si3N4-like network under O-poor conditions, enhancing bulk modulus. Formation energy calculations indicate N2 formation is preferable under O-rich conditions. Meanwhile, under O-poor conditions, Si–N bond formation is preferable, which reinforces a-SiON by increasing bond density. The findings suggest realizing O-poor conditions is crucial for highly elastic insulating films.

A Review of Advanced Thermal Interface Materials with Oriented Structures for Electronic Devices

In high-power electronic devices, the rapid accumulation of heat presents significant thermal management challenges that necessitate the development of advanced thermal interface materials (TIMs) to ensure the performance and reliability of electronic devices. TIMs are employed to facilitate an effective and stable heat dissipation pathway between heat-generating components and heat sinks. In recent years, anisotropic one-dimensional and two-dimensional materials, including carbon fibers, graphene, and boron nitride, have been introduced as fillers in polymer-based TIMs due to their high thermal conductivity in specific directions. The orientation of the fillers in the polymer matrix has become an important issue in the development of a new generation of high-performance TIMs. To provide a systematic understanding of this field, this paper mainly discusses recent advances in advanced oriented TIMs with high thermal conductivity (>10 W/(m·K)). For each filler, its preparation strategies and enhancement mechanisms are analyzed separately, with a focus on the construction of oriented structures. Notably, there are few reviews related to carbon fiber TIMs, and this paper details recent research results in this field. Finally, the challenges, prospects, and future development directions of advanced TIMs are summarized in the hope of stimulating future research efforts.

Fatigue life prediction of BGA solder joint of several alloy compositions under an isothermal harmonic vibration

To ensure durable performance and optimal function of electronic components, it is crucial to guarantee their reliability, robustness and goodness of fit. The solder joints used in the BGA (Ball Grid Array) component play an intrinsic role in the reliability of the system. The vibration present in BGA triggers fatigue in solder joints, which raises a major reliability problem in various sectors such as aerospace, automotive and military industries. This study handles the response to a harmonic vibration at three specific temperatures (−40°C, 25°C, and 125°C) for four types of solder alloys in BGA Soldering. Within this framework, predicting the fatigue life of BGA solder joints with various alloy compositions under the influence of an isothermal harmonic vibration emerges as a crucial challenge in the design as well as reliability of modern electronic devices. The investigated solder compositions are SAC105, SAC305, SAC405, and InnoLot. To simulate and analyze the behavior of solder joints, we used the Ansys APDL finite element analysis (FEA). At both 125°C and −40°C, the Von Mises values proved to exceed those observed at 25°C. Likewise, an S-N curve for InnoLot and the different SACs, under a harmonic vibration at 25°C, was fitted using the Basquin power law relationship. As far as the current research work is concerned, an initial comparison was enacted between InnoLot and SAC alloys under an isothermal harmonic vibration, aiming to ascertain the most reliable alloy. The fatigue life under a harmonic vibration loading at 25°C was estimated. The results revealed that under a harmonic vibration at 25°C, the InnoLot solder displayed the longest lifespan, while the SAC105 solder exhibited the shortest fatigue life.

Fundamental Understanding of Interface Chemistry and Electrical Contact Properties of Bi and MoS2.

The interface properties and thermal stability of bismuth (Bi) contacts on molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) shed light on their behavior under various deposition conditions and temperatures. The examination involves extensive techniques including X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, scanning tunneling microscopy (STM), and scanning tunneling spectroscopy (STS). Bi contacts formed a van der Waals interface on MoS2 regardless of deposition conditions, such as ultrahigh vacuum (UHV, 3 × 10-11 mbar) and high vacuum (HV, 4 × 10-6 mbar), while the oxidation on MoS2 has been observed. However, the semimetallic properties of Bi suppress the impact of defect states, including oxidized-MoS2 and vacancies. Notably, the n-type characteristic of Bi/MoS2 remains unaffected, and no significant changes in the local density of states near the conduction band minimum are observed despite the presence of defects detected by STM and STS. As a result, the Fermi level (EF) resides below the conduction band of MoS2. The study also examines the impact of annealing on the contact interface, revealing no interface reaction between Bi and MoS2 up to 300 °C. These findings enhance our understanding of semimetal (Bi) contacts on MoS2, with implications for improving the performance and reliability of electronic devices.

Supramolecular Association of a Block Copolymer via Strong Hydrogen Bonding to Form Self-Healable Ionogels.

The drive to enhance the operational durability and reliability of stretchable and wearable electronic and electrochemical devices has led to the exploration of self-healing materials that can recover from both physical and functional failures. In the present study, we fabricated a self-healable solid polymer electrolyte, referred to as an ionogel, using reversible hydrogen bonding between the ureidopyrimidone units of a block copolymer (BCP) network swollen in an ionic liquid (IL). The BCP consisted of poly(styrene-b-(methyl acrylate-r-ureidopyrimidone methacrylate)) [poly(S-b-(MA-r-UPyMA)], with the IL-phobic polystyrene forming micellar cores that were interconnected via intercorona hydrogen bonding between the ureidopyrimidone units. By precisely regulating the molecular weight and the composition of the hydrogen-bondable motifs, the mechanical, electrical, and self-healing characteristics of the ionogel were systematically evaluated. The resulting ionogel samples exhibited suitable stretchability, ionic conductivity, and room-temperature self-healability due to reversible hydrogen bonding. To highlight the applicability of the self-healing ionogel as a high-capacitance gate insulator, an electrolyte-gated transistor (EGT) was fabricated using a poly(3-hexylthiophene-2,5-diyl) semiconductor, and the performance of the EGT was fully recovered from a complete cut without any external stimuli.

Isothermal aging and electromigration reliability of Cu pillar bumps interconnections in advanced packages monitored by in-situ dynamic resistance testing

Cu pillar bump (CPB) technology as the representative advanced packaging technology possesses the characteristics of miniaturization and high density, thus playing an important role in the reliability of electronic devices. However, the brittle intermetallic compound (IMC) layer in the joints evidently affects the service performance and reliability of CPB joints. Thus, the influence of IMC layer thickness and microstructure needs to be carefully evaluated. In this study, the reliability of CPB joints with different IMC layer thickness under the condition of isothermal storage and room-temperature electromigration was tested, and the effect of initial IMC thickness of joints on the reliability was revealed. The full-IMC joints have the best isothermal storage reliability while the half-IMC joints perform the worst. Meanwhile, the thin-IMC joints own the best electromigration reliability but the full-IMC joints show the worst because that the initial voids in full-IMC joints accelerate the failure caused by electromigration.

All-natural, thermally conductive, flame-retardant electrical insulating lignocellulose-mica composite film fabricated via in-situ mineralization

Miniaturized, integrated, and functional electronic devices generate a large amount of heat accumulation during operation, which significantly affects the reliability, durability, and safety of electronic devices. In severe cases, it may even lead to fires. Therefore, the development of insulation composite materials with thermal conductivity and flame-retardant properties is particularly important. In this study, we propose an in-situ mineralization strategy to prepare insulation composite materials with thermal conductivity and flame-retardant properties. By dissolving and preparing a gel film, Al3+ and Zn2+ retained inside the lignocellulose are in situ mineralized to form Al(OH)3 and ZnO, and introducing inorganic blocks with high insulation performance (industrial waste mica tailings and synthetic mica). The prepared film has excellent tensile strength (117.4 MPa), low dielectric loss, high dielectric strength (83.8 kV mm−1), high insulation resistance, four times higher thermal conductivity than the unmineralized film, and excellent flame-retardant properties. Meanwhile, the environmental impact of the composite film is much lower than that of petrochemical-based plastic films and can easily degrade under natural conditions within 32 days. It is a composite material that meets the standards of the new electrical insulation field, and the in-situ mineralization strategy can also provide ideas for the preparation of high-performance lignocellulose-based materials.

3D printed cellulose nanofiber/silica nanoparticle scaffolds for daytime radiative cooling

The high degree of modularity and miniaturization of nanoelectronic devices results in a significant increase in heat flux per unit area of electronic components. This can cause a rise in temperature, especially when used outdoors under direct sunlight conditions, which can negatively impact their operational stability and service life. Traditional radiators have limited effectiveness in outdoor sunlight conditions. Additionally, conventional heat sinks are often too large and heavy for miniature electronic devices. Therefore, finding an effective solution to cool electronics under sunlight conditions remains a challenge. Herein, we present an innovative solution to fabricate 3D-printed coolers for electronic devices based on the methyltrimethoxysilane/silica/cellulose nanofibers (MSC) ink. 3D printing technology enables the fabrication of radiative coolers with complex structures and efficient cooling performance as needed. The combination of CNFs and SiO₂ nanoparticles, coupled with the porous nature of the structure, enables the 3D-printed MSC scaffold to exhibit excellent solar reflectance and high mid-infrared (MIR) emissivity, thereby facilitating superior radiative cooling capabilities. During the daytime, it can efficiently reduce the temperature of electronic devices by 6.16 °C, thereby improving their operational efficiency and service life. Furthermore, the 3D-printed MSC scaffold exhibits superior mechanical properties due to the robust 3D frame structure formed by the ink components, which provides stability for the electronic device during operation. This study presents an innovative approach to developing electronic device coolers with excellent cooling performance, which is significant in promoting the reliability and stability of electronic devices.

Towards void-free copper filling of low-aspect-ratio heat dissipation through holes in packaging substrate with high H2SO4 concentration electroplating system

The void-free filling of high-density low aspect ratio (AR≤5) through holes (THs) in the packaging substrate is beneficial for promoting the integration, reliability, and heat dissipation efficiency of high-power electronic devices. It is a challenge to fill the low ARs THs compactly in direct current (DC) electroplating. The copper filling process relies heavily on the additives’ complex interactions and multiple process parameters. Herein, an ideal convection-sensitive electroplating solution formula — 2.34 M H2SO4, 0.24 M Cu2SO4·5H2O, 30 mg/L Cl−, 9 mg/L SH110, 5 mg/L NTBC, and 200 mg/L PEG — that was appropriate for low ARs THs filling was provided by investigate the electrochemical characteristics of additives. The critical electroplating parameters were optimized by thoroughly examining their influence on filling process, including current density 1.5 ASD, solution flow rate 2.2 L/min, and temperature 25 °C. The process window was enlarged apparently by the combination of optimal parameters for simultaneous void-free filling of THs with a large AR range of 0.95–5, dense crystal structure, and high layer quality could be achieved. Subsequently, the low ARs THs array filled by the optimized technology was implemented in the packaging substrate as the heat dissipation channel, which significantly promoted the heat dissipation efficiency.

Enhancement of Cu-to-Cu bonding property by residual stress in Cu substrate

This study investigated the use of copper nanoparticles (Cu NPs) as a novel material for interconnecting joints in advanced electronic packaging technology. Cu NPs offered a promising alternative due to their excellent electrical and thermal properties. Cu NPs were characterized as single crystals by a transmission electron microscope, and electron backscatter diffraction confirmed that the grain size of the Cu substrate was about 11 μm and only became slightly larger after thermal annealing. Surface diffusion was determined to be the dominant kinetic path for Cu NP sintering on the substrate. An additional driving force for sintering was validated by measuring the stress state using X-ray diffraction. The characterization results provided evidence for proposing a mechanism to explain how residual stress influenced atomic behavior during the sintering process. High residual stress enhanced the strength of the Cu NP joints and improved the reliability of electronic devices.

AutoDetect: Novel Autoencoding Architecture for Counterfeit IC Detection

The global electronic supply chain industry is a complex and interconnected network of companies, organizations, and individuals that collaborate to produce and distribute electronic devices and components. It plays a critical role in the global economy, as electronic devices have become an essential part of modern life. Electronic components and devices are produced and distributed across the world, with different regions and countries specializing in different aspects of the supply chain. This global nature of the electronic supply chain industry also poses challenges, particularly in terms of quality control and supply chain transparency involving counterfeit components owing to its interconnected nature. Counterfeiting of integrated circuits (ICs) and semiconductor devices is a significant challenge that poses threats to the safety and reliability of electronic devices, the global economy, intellectual property rights, and the overall sustainability of the electronic supply chain industry. To address this challenge, we propose a novel autoencoding architecture for counterfeit IC detection using a labeled database. The proposed architecture achieves an overall accuracy of 83% which is ≈\\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \\usepackage{amsmath} \\usepackage{wasysym} \\usepackage{amsfonts} \\usepackage{amssymb} \\usepackage{amsbsy} \\usepackage{mathrsfs} \\usepackage{upgreek} \\setlength{\\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \\begin{document}$$\\approx$$\\end{document} 20% more than the existing transfer learning approaches.

Influence of Sn grain orientation on mean-time-to-failure equation for microbumps in 3D IC technology

The mean-time-to-failure (MTTF) associated with microbumps is a pivotal factor influencing the reliability of cutting-edge consumer electronic devices. Within Sn-based solder joints, the orientation of Sn grains significantly impacts the diffusion velocity of Cu and Ni atoms, thereby impacting MTTF. While a large solder joint encompassing numerous Sn grains can be treated as isotropic, the scenario shifts in a small microbump with just one Sn grain, rendering it anisotropic. In such cases, the Sn grain orientation emerges as a dominant factor dictating the microbump's longevity. Herein, we investigated the influence of Sn grain orientation on MTTF of electromigration, thermomigration, and thermal aging. A new parameter, α, was introduced, which signifies the angle between the c-axis of the Sn grain and the direction of external stressing.

Toward Ideal Low-Frequency Noise in Monolayer CVD MoS2 FETs: Influence of van der Waals Junctions and Sulfur Vacancy Management.

The pursuit of sub-1-nm field-effect transistor (FET) channels within 3D semiconducting crystals faces challenges due to diminished gate electrostatics and increased charge carrier scattering. 2D semiconductors, exemplified by transition metal dichalcogenides, provide a promising alternative. However, the non-idealities, such as excess low-frequency noise (LFN) in 2D FETs, present substantial hurdles to their realization and commercialization. In this study, ideal LFN characteristics in monolayer MoS2 FETs are attained by engineering the metal-2D semiconductor contact and the subgap density of states (DOS). By probing non-ideal contact resistance effects using CuS and Au electrodes, it is uncovered that excess contact noise in the high drain current (ID) region can be substantially reduced by forming a van der Waals junction with CuS electrodes. Furthermore, thermal annealing effectively mitigates sulfur vacancy-induced subgap density of states (DOS), diminishing excess noise in the low ID region. Through meticulous optimization of metal-2D semiconductor contacts and subgap DOS, alignment of 1/f noise with the pure carrier number fluctuation model is achieved, ultimately achieving the sought-after ideal LFN behavior in monolayer MoS2 FETs. This study underscores the necessity of refining excess noise, heralding improved performance and reliability of 2D electronic devices.

Effect of Creep, Fatigue and Random Vibration on the Integrity of Solder Joints in BGA Package

This study employs Finite Element Analysis (FEA) to investigate the effects of creep, fatigue, and random vibration on the integrity of solder joints in BGA packages in electronic modules. Evaluating the response of lead-based Sn63Pb37 and lead-free SnAgCu alloy solders (SAC305, SAC387, SAC396, and SAC405) to induced loads - stress, strain, strain energy density, and displacement in the joints is obtained and studied better to understand the mechanism of the joints' degradation. SAC305 and SAC405 are modelled with linear stress-temperature relationships σ = 3.152T–68.167 and σ = 1.543T–34.983, respectively. The magnitude of the strain energy density in the joints is a key failure driver. SAC387 and SAC396 solder joints display lower values of strain energy density and thus have higher durability. Displacement analysis indicates that SAC305 and Sn63Pb37 are prone to deformation-induced failure. SAC387 exhibits the highest fatigue yield stress at 58 MPa, while SAC405 displays the lowest stress at 22 MPa. Analysis of the results of random vibration shows that Sn63Pb37 developed the highest stress at 34.62 MPa and is thus susceptible to stress-induced failure. The robust stress, strain, and strain energy responses of SAC405 and SAC396 provide key insights into improving the mechanical reliability of future electronic devices towards better sustainability.

NBTI Effect Survey for Low Power Systems in Ultra-Nanoregime

Background: Electronic device scaling with the advancement of technology nodes maintains the performance of the logic circuits with area benefit. Metal oxide semiconductor (MOS) devices are the fundamental blocks for building logic circuits. Area minimization with higher efficiency of the circuits motivates the researchers of very large-scale integration (VLSI) design. Moreover, the reliability of digital circuits is one of the biggest challenges in VLSI technology. A major issue in reliability is negative bias temperature instability (NBTI) degradation. NBTI affects the efficiency and reliability of electronic devices Methods: This paper presents a review of NBTI physical-based mechanisms. NBTI's impact on VLSI circuits and techniques has been studied to mitigate and compensate for the effect of NBTI. Results: This review paper presents an idea to relate the NBTI and leakage mitigation techniques. This study gives an overview of the efficiency, complexity, and overhead of NBTI mitigation techniques and methodologies. Conclusion: This survey provides a brief idea about NBTI degradation by using reliability simulation. Moreover, the extensive aging effect is discussed in the paper.

Effects of Cu/SnAgCu Powder Fraction and Sintering Time on Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Transient Liquid Phase Sintered Joints.

The effects of the sintering duration and powder fraction (Ag-coated Cu/SnAgCu) on the microstructure and reliability of transient liquid phase sintered (TLPS) joints are investigated. The results show that two main intermetallic compounds (IMCs, Cu6Sn5 and Cu3Sn) formed in the joints. The Cu6Sn5 ratio generally decreased with increasing sintering time, Cu powder fraction, and thermal treatment. The void ratio of the high-Cu-fraction joints decreased and increased with increasing sintering and thermal stressing durations, respectively, whereas the low-Cu-fraction counterparts were stable. We also found that the shear strength increased with increasing thermal treatment time, which resulted from the transformation of Cu6Sn5 and Cu3Sn. Such findings could provide valuable information for optimizing the TLPS process and assuring the high reliability of electronic devices.

Neural Network-Based Approach for Failure and Life Prediction of Electronic Components under Accelerated Life Stress

Researchers worldwide have been focusing on accurately predicting the remaining useful life of electronic devices to ensure reliability in various industries. This has been made possible by advancements in artificial intelligence (AI), machine learning, and Internet of Things (IoT) technologies. However, accurately forecasting device life with minimal data sets, especially in industrial applications, remains a challenge. This paper aims to address this challenge by utilizing machine learning algorithms, specifically BP, XGBOOST, and KNN, to predict device reliability with limited data. The remaining life dataset of electronic components is obtained through simulation for training and testing the algorithms, and the experimental results show that the algorithms achieve a certain level of accuracy, with the error rates being as follows: BP algorithm, 0.01–0.02%; XGBOOST algorithm, 0.01–0.02%; and KNN algorithm, 0–0.07%. By benchmarking these algorithms, the study demonstrates the feasibility of deploying machine learning models for device life prediction with acceptable accuracy loss, and highlights the potential of AI algorithms in predicting the reliability of electronic devices.