Increase In Relative Density Research Articles

Microscopic study of the impact of particle morphology on the compressibility of calcareous sands

As a kind of unique marine sediment, Calcareous sand exhibits high compressibility because its irregular particle morphology leads to the formation of large interparticle voids. In this study, using calcareous sand samples from the South China Sea, we employed X-ray CT scanning technology to reveal the microstructural evolution of calcareous sand during compression. This allowed us to establish correlations between particle morphology, relative density, vertical stress, and microstructural parameters. The research findings are as follows: (1) Samples with a higher proportion of cube shape particles have larger initial void ratios, and experience a more significant decrease in void ratio under stress. Dense samples exhibit greater deformation resistance and lower particle breakage rates, resulting in a slower reduction in void ratio under stress. (2) The number of pores in the samples follows a V-shaped trend with an increase in the proportion of cube shape particles, reaching its minimum when the proportions of cube shape and platy shape particles are balanced. The number of pores increases with an increase in vertical stress and relative density. (3) The equivalent pore diameter and pore volume of the samples exhibit an inverted V-shaped trend with an increase in cube shape particle content, reaching their maximum when the proportions of cube shape and platy shape particles are balanced. (4) The more cube shape particles in the sample, the more irregular the pore shapes become. Under vertical stress, the influence of particle morphology on pore shape gradually diminishes until it disappears. (5) The particle coordination number in the samples predominantly falls within the range of 3.79–5.68. The coordination number increases with increasing relative density and vertical stress, with vertical stress exerting a significantly greater influence on the coordination number than relative density. Under vertical stress, samples with more cube shape particles exhibit smaller coordination numbers and higher particle breakage rates.

The Effect of Powder Temperature on Semi-Solid Powder Rolling AA2024 Based on Experiments and Numerical Simulation

Semi-solid powder rolling (SSPR) is widely used to produce alloy strips with fine grains and excellent performances in the automotive, aerospace and shipbuilding industries. During SSPR, powder temperature, as a very important parameter, greatly affects strips’ microstructures and mechanical properties, which have been investigated by many researchers, but its effect on the forming process and mechanism has rarely been studied. Therefore, based on online experimental detection and transient simulation, the microstructures, strip temperatures, relative densities and rolling forces at different conditions were, respectively, measured, calculated, compared and analyzed in order to study the deformation process and mechanism during SSPR. The result shows that with the increase in powder temperature, the strip temperature and relative density increase, while the rolling force decreases. The grains of the strips are refined after SSPR, and fine and dense microstructures are obtained at 600 °C, which is the optimum powder temperature. In the main deformation sections (II and III), when the contact normal force exists and reaches a maximum, the relative density and rolling force increase rapidly. At these sections, the strips rolled at 600 °C are mainly in a porous solid state, and powder crushing dominates the strip deformation. Therefore, SSPR at 600 °C and below can be considered porous or powder hot rolling, integrating powder crushing, solidification, deformation, densification and grain coarsening. Moreover, as the simulated values are basically consistent with experimental values, the thermomechanical coupling model based on the Fourier equation and its parameters are confirmed to be reasonable.

Study on buckling behavior of multilayer pyramid lattice structures

Three-dimensional lattice structures with high specific strength, specific stiffness and low apparent density, are widely employed across multiple engineering fields. Under uniaxial compressive loading, the lattice structure may experience local buckling or global buckling. This paper conducted a systematic parametric study of the various factors affecting the buckling behavior of multilayer pyramid lattice structures to investigate the mechanism of the two main instability modes, local and global buckling. It was found that the critical buckling load increases with the increase in the size of the unit cell and decreases with the increase in the total height of the structure for the same relative density. As the relative density increases, the buckling resistance of the lattice structure increases. It is possible to examine various buckling modes by varying the geometrical properties of the pyramid unit cell (slenderness ratio, rod inclination angle, cross-sectional size of strut connection parts). Finally, numerical simulations were performed to calculate the yield strength and buckling strength of the lattice structure under uniaxial compression load, in order to estimate the threshold relative density for structural buckling and yield failure. The results demonstrated that buckling failure should be considered for aluminum alloy pyramid lattice when the relative density is below 4.07%. This study provides design criteria for lattice structures dominated by buckling and offers ideas for improving the buckling capacity of truss-type lattice structures.

Bayesian areal disaggregation regression to predict wildlife distribution and relative density with low-resolution data.

For species of conservation concern and human-wildlife conflict, it is imperative that spatial population data be available to design adaptive-management strategies and be prepared to meet challenges such as land use and climate change, disease outbreaks, and invasive species spread. This can be difficult, perhaps impossible, if spatially explicit wildlife data are not available. Low-resolution areal counts, however, are common in wildlife monitoring, that is, the number of animals reported for a region, usually corresponding to administrative subdivisions, for example, region, province, county, departments, or cantons. Bayesian areal disaggregation regression is a solution to exploit areal counts and provide conservation biologists with high-resolution species distribution predictive models. This method originated in epidemiology but lacks experimentation in ecology. It provides a plethora of applications to change the way we collect and analyze data for wildlife populations. Based on high-resolution environmental rasters, the disaggregation method disaggregates the number of individuals observed in a region and distributes them at the pixel level (e.g., 5 × 5 km or finer resolution), thereby converting low-resolution data into a high-resolution distribution and indices of relative density. In our demonstrative study, we disaggregated areal count data from hunting bag returns to disentangle the changing distribution and population dynamics of three deer species (red, sika, and fallow) in Ireland from 2000 to 2018. We show an application of the Bayesian areal disaggregation regression method and document marked increases in relative population density and extensive range expansion for each of the three deer species across Ireland. We challenged our disaggregated model predictions by correlating them with independent deer surveys carried out in field sites and alternative deer distribution models built using presence-only and presence-absence data. Finding a high correlation with both independent data sets, we highlighted the ability of Bayesian areal disaggregation regression to accurately capture fine-scale spatial patterns of animal distribution. This study uncovers new scenarios for wildlife managers and conservation biologists to reliably use regional count data disregarded so far in species distribution modeling. Thus, it represents a step forward in our ability to monitor wildlife population and meet challenges in our changing world.

Pressureless sintering of W[sbnd]Ni nanoparticles prepared by ultrasonic spray pyrolysis and hydrogen reduction

The synthesis of homogenous powder mixtures and the characteristic of the sintered W-0.4 wt% Ni compacts were investigated. Ultrasonic spray pyrolysis and polymeric additive solution route for developing the initial powder mixtures were compared based on the resulting microstructure and mechanical property of sintered WNi. The powder mixture synthesized by the ultrasonic spray pyrolysis and hydrogen reduction showed marked refinement of W particle size and homogeneous dispersion of the Ni activator in the form of nickel hydroxide. The WNi powder from ultrasonic spray pyrolysis, pressureless-sintered at 1400 °C, exhibited the increased relative density of 97.6% and hardness of 4.02 GPa compared with the powder from polymeric additive solution. XPS analysis revealed that Ni, existed as nickel hydroxide state in the powder mixture, was partially dissolved in W during sintering to form an alloy. The increase in relative density was explained by the uniform WNi nanocomposite powder synthesized by ultrasonic spray pyrolysis. The high hardness was mainly due to the refinement of W grains.

Mechanical model of strut-based metamaterials based on direct stiffness method

The mechanical properties of micro-struts manufactured through laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) are influenced by a multitude of factors including forming angle, thickness, process parameters, and equipment. This results in the failure of mechanical models for strut-based metamaterials that are based on bulk material properties. By incorporating mechanical property data from micro-struts produced using LPBF into a direct stiffness method, we developed a mechanical model capable of predicting the elastic tensor and strength surface of strut-based metamaterials. The robustness of this methodology was evaluated through quasi-static compression experiments on 3D double-arrowhead (DAH) auxetic metamaterials produced using LPBF and finite element analysis (FEA). Results indicate that the deviations of Young's modulus, Poisson's ratio, and strength between the theoretical model's predictions and experimental results are within 30 %, 50 %, and 25 %, decreasing to within 15 %, 30 %, and 15 % as relative density increases, respectively. Deviations from FEA results under the assumption of uniform strut performance remain within 15 %, 25 %, and 20 %, correspondingly. Furthermore, the theoretical model can predict the elasticity and strength of metamaterials under any loading direction and identify the most vulnerable strut in the metamaterial unit. The theoretical model effectively represented the general anisotropy of metamaterials resulting from LPBF manufacturing factors. This study presents a transplantable method for developing mechanical models of strut-based metamaterials, improving the accuracy of performance prediction and promoting their application in LPBF-manufactured parts.

Raman spectra, bond characteristics, and microwave dielectric properties of Gd2Mo3O12 ceramics

Gd2Mo3O12 ceramics were prepared using the traditional solid-phase reaction method. All samples were found to possess an orthorhombic crystal structure with a space group of Pba2, as revealed by refined XRD results. The ceramic sintered at 1000 °C exhibited a high relative density of 96.95% and superior microwave dielectric properties, including εr of 9.42 ± 0.05, Q × f of 49258 ± 1200 GHz, and τf of -71.8 ± 0.7 ppm/°C. The results suggest a correlation between an increase in εr and higher relative density, and a more compact and uniform microstructure can lead to higher Q × f value. Chemical bonding theories and Raman spectroscopy analysis reveal that Mo-O bonds, rather than Gd-O bonds, dominate the microwave dielectric properties. Furthermore, the εr of Gd2Mo3O12 ceramic was closely related to bond ionicity, while Q × f and τf were mainly determined by lattice energy and bond energy, respectively.

On the Enhanced Mechanical Characteristics of 3D Printed Architected Spiderweb Lattice Structures through Overall Density Variation

Abstract This paper presents the performance analysis of 3D printed architected spiderweb lattice structures. The research is aimed to provide suitable lattice configuration to be useful for customized foot insole applications. First the architected spiderweb lattice structures comprising of hexagonal networks consisting of struts and nodes are designed. Then 3D printing of these structures is carried out and for this purpose two different materials such as Thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) and ABS-like resin are considered. Quasi-static compression tests are performed, and simulation analyses are conducted in ANSYS to explore the influence of relative density over the energy absorption capacity of the lattice structures. It is observed that an increase in relative density of 0.2 provides a substantial increase in energy absorbing capacity and strength of the lattice configurations. This increase in relative density by 0.2 led to a 6-fold increase in energy absorption capacity with a 4.5-fold augmentation in strength for TPU lattice structure, and a 7-fold augmentation in energy absorption capacity with 3.5-fold increase in strength for ABS-like resin lattice structure. These results suggest that increasing the relative density of these materials can be a viable strategy for enhancing their mechanical properties, which can have significant implications for different industrial and engineering fields. The enhanced energy absorbing characteristics of this presently developed lattice structures with such materials can make them suitable for foot insole applications.

Creep Characterization of Inconel 718 Lattice Metamaterials Manufactured by Laser Powder Bed Fusion

Lattice metamaterials manufactured by laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) are limited by their performance for critical applications. LPBF materials have microstructural or macroscale anomalies, such as suboptimal grain size, morphology, and lack of fusion. This results in LPBF metamaterials performance degradation for various mechanical properties, such as creep, which has seldom been researched. To understand the creep behavior of LPBF Inconel 718, body‐centered cubic metamaterials are fabricated for creep test at 650 °C. Kachanov's damage modeling is used to predict the creep performance of the metamaterials under different loading conditions. Microstructural characterization is performed with scanning electron microscopy to identify critical microstructure defects affecting the failure mechanisms and creep behaviors of the metamaterials. It is shown in the results that the loading conditions affect the fracture process of the metamaterials owing to different failure mechanisms. In the simulation and test results, the logarithmic decline in creep life is shown when loading increases; also, logarithmic increase in the creep life is shown when relative density increases.

Effect of drying-wetting cycles on the durability of calcareous sand reinforced by MICP and recycled shredded coconut coir (RSC)

Microbial-induced carbonate precipitation (MICP) technique has been adopted in geotechnical engineering widely. In this study, the effect of drying-wetting cycles on MICP-recycled shredded coconut coir (RSC) reinforced calcareous sand was studied, and the deterioration mechanism under drying-wetting cycles was revealed. Test results indicated that drying-wetting cycles exert an important influence on the durability of MICP-RSC reinforced specimens. With the increase of drying-wetting cycles N, the specimens demonstrated significant increase in mass loss rate and critical void ratio, decrease in maximum shear modulus, peak strength and toughness. Furthermore, an increase in the initial relative density reduced the deterioration of MICP-RSC reinforced specimens exposed to drying-wetting cycles. Higher initial relative density of the specimen correlates with an increased maximum shear modulus, peak stress and toughness, a decreased in permeability and critical void ratio. Microanalysis revealed that the generated calcium carbonate adhering to sand particles and RSC gradually dropped off with the increase of N, weakened cementation, and led to the deterioration of MICP-RSC reinforced specimens, which is consistent with the deterioration characteristics under drying-wetting cycles.

Digital Light Processing of 2D Lattice Composites for Tunable Self‐Sensing and Mechanical Performance

This study investigates the mechanical and piezoresistive self‐sensing performance of additive manufacturing‐enabled 2D nanocomposite lattices under monotonic and cyclic tensile loading. Lattice structures comprising hexagonal, chiral, triangular, and reentrant unit cell topologies are realized via digital light processing using an acrylic photocurable resin filled with carbon nanotubes (CNTs). The results reveal that the piezoresistive sensitivity of reentrant and triangular lattices is nearly insensitive to changes in relative density. In contrast, the gauge factors of the hexagonal and chiral lattices rise by 300% and 500%, respectively, with an increase in relative density from 20 to 40%, which can be ascribed to their bend‐dominated behavior, causing an increase in surface strains in the lattice struts with increasing relative density for an imposed macroscopic strain. The measured stress versus strain responses compare well with nonlinear finite element results. Under strain‐controlled cyclic loading, the electrical resistance of the 2D lattices is found to decline over time due to reorientation of the CNTs in the surrounding viscoelastic polymer matrix. The findings provide valuable insights into the interrelations between sensing performance, cell architecture, and relative density of the lattices, and offer guidelines for the design of architected strain sensors and self‐sensing lightweight structures.

Adaptive enhancement design of triply periodic minimal surface lattice structure based on non-uniform stress distribution

The Schwarz primitive triply periodic minimal surface (P-type TPMS) lattice structures are widely used. However, these lattice structures have weak load-bearing capacity compared with other cellular structures. In this paper, an adaptive enhancement design method based on the non-uniform stress distribution in structures with uniform thickness is proposed to design the P-type TPMS lattice structures with higher mechanical properties. Two types of structures are designed by adjusting the adaptive thickness distribution in the TPMS. One keeps the same relative density, and the other keeps the same of non-enhanced region thickness. Compared with the uniform lattice structure, the elastic modulus for the structure with the same relative density increases by more than 17%, and the yield strength increases by more than 10.2%. Three kinds of TPMS lattice structures are fabricated by laser powder bed fusion (L-PBF) with 316L stainless steel to verify the proposed enhanced design. The manufacture-induced geometric deviation between the as-design and as-printed models is measured by micro X-ray computed tomography (µ-CT) scans. The quasi-static compression experimental results of P-type TPMS lattice structures show that the reinforced structures have stronger elastic moduli, ultimate strengths, and energy absorption capabilities than the homogeneous P-TPMS lattice structure.

Experimental and Numerical Parametric Studies on Inclined Skirted Foundation Resting on Sand

Skirted foundation behavior is enhanced due to the increase in skirt angle. The bearing capacity of the inclined skirted foundations resting on sandy soil is influenced by the soil parameters and skirting systems. Finite element analyses were carried out using Plaxis-3D software to find out the influence of the relative density, the internal friction angle of the supported soil, and the additional skirts on the bearing capacity of the inclined skirted foundations. The experimental work on a small physical scale was also carried out to support the numerical findings, which give an acceptable agreement. The findings revealed that the increase in relative density resulted in a significant increase in the bearing capacity of the inclined skirted foundation. In the same way, as the internal friction angle increases, the bearing capacity is affected by this increase, which improves the bearing capacity value. The effect of the additional skirts on the bearing capacity is observed to be neglected, and, in some cases, it causes a negative effect. The findings of this study contribute to a greater comprehension of the behavior of inclined skirted foundations and can assist in the future design of more efficient and effective foundation systems. Doi: 10.28991/CEJ-2023-09-07-017 Full Text: PDF

Microstructure, Mechanical and Wear Properties of W-Si-C Composites Consolidated by Spark Plasma Sintering

W-Si-C composites with high relative densities and good mechanical and wear properties were successfully prepared by spark plasma sintering. The influence of SiC content on the relative density, microstructure, mechanical properties and wear characteristics was investigated. The results indicated that the reaction between SiC and W at their interface produced W2C and W5Si3. SiC also reacted with oxygen impurities at the W grain boundary to form SiO2. The purification of the grain boundaries of W was carried out by SiO2 synthesis. Reactive sintering reduces the free energy of the system and facilitates the densification process of W-Si-C composites. This results in a significant increase in the relative density of W-Si-C composites, which reaches a maximum of 98.12%, higher than the 94.32% of pure tungsten. The hardness significantly increases from 4.33 GPa to 8.40 GPa when the SiC content is 2 wt% compared to pure tungsten due to the generation of the hard ceramic phase and the increase in relative density. The wear resistance of the W-Si-C composites was significantly improved with little SiC addition. The wear rate significantly decreased from 313.27 × 10−3 mm3/N·m of pure tungsten to 5.71 × 10−3 mm3/N·m of W-0.5 wt% SiC. SEM analyses revealed that the dominant wear mechanism of pure tungsten was attributed to fatigue wear, while that of W-Si-C composites was due to abrasive wear.

Plastic behavior of a nanoporous high-entropy alloy under compression

Nanoporous High-entropy alloys (HEA) have attracted increasing attention in recent years due to their remarkable mechanical properties and their capability as storage devices. However, chemical complexity involves fluctuations in the atomic environment, hindering the analysis of plasticity. Here, we perform molecular dynamics simulations of an equiatomic nanoporous single crystal FeCrNiCuCo HEA under compression to unveil the role of pores in the plastic behavior, including a random sample and a sample with short-range order. These results are compared to a nanoporous single crystal Average Atom (AA) sample with the same topology to assess the effect of chemical complexity. We find that the overall elastic and plastic regimes are similar in all samples, in contrast to previous reports for tensile tests. However, some differences can be distinguished between HEA samples and AA. Chemical complexity in the HEA favors dislocation nucleation and larger twinning activity, leading to a faster reduction of pores as reflected by the increase in relative density and decrease in surface-to-volume ratio. Following machine learning methods, linear vacancy clusters were found in all samples. These clusters exhibited a perfectly linear shape in AA and a less-defined shape in the HEA samples. Thus, our work provides new insights into the effect of chemical complexity and nanopores on the plasticity of HEAs under compression.

Effect of Sintering Temperature on Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Fe–4Ni–0.8Mo–0.6C Steel Small‐Module Gears Fabricated by Micrometal Injection Molding

Small‐module gear is the key basic component of equipment in the fields of aerospace, weapon equipment, communication, and so on, which is an important embodiment of the high‐end intelligent equipment manufacturing level. Herein, the small‐module gears are fabricated by micro‐metal injection molding (micro‐MIM) and the microstructure and mechanical properties of the gears are characterized. The small‐module gears are successfully molded, debounded, and sintered based on the feedstock with 58% powder loading. The structure and mechanical properties of the samples are investigated in relation to the sintering temperature for the determination of optimum sintering conditions. The results show that the relative density and average grain size increase with the increment of sintering temperature, and the maximum relative density of 97.6% is obtained at the sintering temperature of 1320 °C. The tensile strength and hardness of the sintered sample are 2034 MPa and 709 HV at 1320 °C, respectively, presenting the most desirable mechanical properties, which are attributed to the formation of martensite with high strength and hardness at the expense of pearlite and ferrite and the alloy carbide precipitations in the microstructure. Herein, important guidance to develop low‐cost and high‐performance small‐module gear is provided by using micro‐MIM.

Effect of Scanning Strategies on the Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Ti-22Al-25Nb Alloy Fabricated through Selective Laser Melting

In this study, Ti-22Al-25Nb intermetallic compound alloys are fabricated through selective laser melting (SLM) at four scanning speeds (600, 700, 800, and 900 mm/s). The microstructure and mechanical properties of the selective laser melting fabricated alloys are systematically evaluated. The results indicate that scanning speed significantly affects microstructure characteristics (e.g., relative density, grain size, texture density, and the precipitation of secondary phases). The variation laws of the relative density, grain size, and texture density are likewise affected by scanning speed. The relative density, grain size, and texture density increase and then decrease with the increase in scanning speed. The alloy fabricated with the lowest scanning speed (600 mm/s) exhibits the maximum relative density, grain size, and texture density. By contrast, the alloy with the highest scanning speed (900 mm/s) exhibits the minimum relative density, grain size, and texture density. Furthermore, the precipitations of the O phase and Ti3Al phase are primarily distributed in regions with a high strain concentration near the pool boundary. The alloy fabricated with a 600 mm/s scanning speed simultaneously achieves the highest strength and elongation, which is closely correlated with the uniform distribution of secondary phases.

Effect of Sn doping on sinterability and electrical conductivity of strontium hafnate

The effect of isovalent substitution of hafnium by tin in strontium hafnate on sinterability and electrical conductivity was studied for the first time. The ceramic samples SrHfxSn1–xO3–δ (x = 0–0.16) were synthesized by solid-state reaction and sintered at 1600 °C for 5 h. The samples were examined using the methods of X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, impedance spectroscopy, and four-probe direct current technique. It was shown that all samples were phase pure and had the orthorhombic structure of SrHfO3 with the Pnma space group. Sn doping resulted in an increase in grain size, relative density and conductivity; the sample with x = 0.08 demonstrated the highest conductivity, which was ~830 times greater than that of undoped strontium hafnate at 600 °C. The conductivity of SrHf0.92Sn0.08O3–δ was 4.1∙10–6 S cm–1 at 800 °C in dry air. The possible reasons for the effect of Sn on the electrical properties of strontium hafnate were discussed.

Properties of Y<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> Dispersion Strengthened W Fabricated by Ultrasonic Spray Pyrolysis and Pressure Sintering

The effects of fabrication method on the microstructure and sinterability of W-1 wt% Y<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> were analyzed. W composite powders dispersed with Y<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> particles were synthesized by the ultrasonic spray pyrolysis process or the ultrasonic spray pyrolysis/polymer solution process. A dense composite was fabricated by a combination of spark plasma sintering and final hot isostatic pressing. The powder synthesized by the ultrasonic spray pyrolysis had fine dispersed particles on the surface of the cubic powder and was composed of W, Y<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> and W-oxides. On the other hand, in the case of the ultrasonic spray pyrolysis/polymer solution process, the nano-sized particles formed agglomerates and existed only as pure W and Y<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> phases. All the sintered compacts treated with HIP showed an increase in relative density, and the sintered compacts of the powder synthesized by the ultrasonic spray pyrolysis/polymer solution process showed a maximum relative density of 97~99% and a fine grain size. The change in microstructure with different powder processing was explained by the presence of W-oxide and the size and distribution of Y<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> particles. The Vickers hardness of the sintered compact reached the largest value of about 5 GPa in the powder synthesized by the ultrasonic spray pyrolysis/polymer solution process, which was interpreted to be a result of the relatively high density and decreased grain size.

A Study on Effective Compressive and Shear Properties of Tetrahedral Lattice Materials

Tetrahedral lattice materials can be used as the core of a sandwich structure. The properties of tetrahedral lattice materials can be controlled by modifying their geometrical parameters and relative density. In this paper, a tetrahedral lattice structure deformation mechanism-based theoretical analysis model is established to predict the effective mechanical properties of the structure under compressive and shear loadings. The analytical solutions are subsequently verified by finite element analysis of a large-scale lattice material model. Based on the obtained results, the effects of the geometrical parameters, relative density, and shear deformation are discussed. At a specific relative density, as strut inclination angle increases: (1) the effective compressive modulus in the z-direction increases; (2) the effective compressive modulus in x- and y-directions, and the effective shear modulus in xy-, xz-, and yz-directions firstly increases but then decreases; (3) the effective Poisson’s ratios [Formula: see text] and [Formula: see text] increase, whereas, [Formula: see text], [Formula: see text], [Formula: see text], and [Formula: see text] decrease. With an increase in relative density, the effective compressive and shearing modulus increase, the effective Poisson’s ratios remain constant, [Formula: see text] and [Formula: see text] are always equal to 0 when the strut inclination angle is [Formula: see text]. The effect of shear deformation on the effective mechanical properties increases as the slenderness ratio increases. The predicted effective properties enable the tetrahedral lattice unit cells to be treated as “material” in the design and analysis process.