Regulatory Tools Research Articles

Managing Svalbard Tourism: Inconsistencies and Conflicts of Interest

The Svalbard Archipelago has experienced a rapid increase in tourism-related activities over the past few decades. The Norwegian Government’s ambition to develop the Archipelago’s tourism industry offers multiple socio-economic opportunities. The development and scope of these tourism activities is affected by a complex governance system that entails strict environmental regulation and preparedness considerations. To understand the balance of goals across the national and international policy levels, we have mapped, reviewed, and analyzed the national and international regulations and agreements that affect tourism activities on Svalbard. The document analysis reveals the framework of natural and environmental consideration, access to areas and passage, requirements for organized outdoor activities, and regulatory tools. We discovered conflicts and internal inconsistencies in the way that Svalbard tourism has developed. It has been shaped by both economic growth and environmental preservation, without any specific business development objectives and goals or acceptable limits of environmental and social change in place. For tourism stakeholders, this might complicate any rational assessment of the balance between economic development and environmental status. The challenges we have identified are specific to Svalbard, but are likely to be similar in many other Arctic locations involved in tourism.

Mandatory human rights due diligence laws in Europe: A mirage for rightsholders?

AbstractMandatory human rights due diligence (HRDD) laws in the European Union (EU) – both enacted and in the making – seem to be a promising tool to harden soft international standards in the business and human rights (BHR) field, the most prominent of these being the UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights (UNGPs). This article develops a two-layered critique of mandatory HRDD laws. It problematizes the very concept of HRDD as articulated by the UNGPs. I will argue that due to various conceptual, operational and structural limitations, HRDD alone will not bring the desired changes for rightsholders, because this process does not address various asymmetries of power between corporations and affected communities. The second layer of critique concerns the content of mandatory HRDD laws enacted in France, the Netherlands, Switzerland, Norway and Germany. Assessing these laws vis-à-vis six preconditions required to protect effectively people and the planet from business-related harms, it is clear that these mandatory HRDD laws are half-hearted attempts to tame business-related human rights abuses and hold the relevant corporate actors accountable. In addition to developing more ambitious mandatory HRDD laws in future, states should employ a range of additional regulatory tools that pay greater attention to achieving outcomes, drawing red lines in certain situations, and promoting access to remedy and corporate accountability.

RMetS Climate Change Forum 2022: a vision for 2050 and implications for action

<scp>RMetS</scp> Climate Change Forum 2022: a vision for 2050 and implications for action

Abandoning individual enforcement? Interrogating the enforcement of age discrimination law

AbstractDiscrimination law primarily relies on individual enforcement for addressing discrimination at work; yet those who are most impacted by discrimination are likely the least able to enforce their rights. The question then becomes: what role should individual enforcement play in discrimination law? Can we effectively abandon individual enforcement as part of the legislative model? Drawing on a mixed method, multi-year comparative study of the enforcement of age discrimination law in the UK, Australia and Sweden, this paper considers the gaps, limits and risks of the individual enforcement model in discrimination law. Integrating doctrinal analysis; statistical analysis of claims and cases, and data from the EU and OECD; qualitative expert interviews; and a survey of legal practitioners, this paper argues that while individual enforcement is inherently limited as a tool for achieving systemic change, it must remain part of any legislative model. Reflecting on the experience in Sweden, where individual enforcement of discrimination law is significantly curtailed, the paper posits that individual rights and individual enforcement remain important complements to other regulatory tools, particularly in jurisdictions with strong enduring age norms. Abandoning or severely restricting individual enforcement is unlikely to support either the macro or micro effectiveness of age discrimination law.

EXPERIENCE OF IMPLEMENTATION OF REGULATORY IMPACT ANALYSIS IN INDIVIDUAL POST-SOVIET COUNTRIES

Objective. The aim of the article is to study the experience of implementing such an instrument of regulatory policy as the regulatory impact analysis of regulations in some post-Soviet countries. Methodology. To achieve this goal used a wide range of general and special methods of scientific knowledge: comparative analysis, system-structural, generalization. Findings. Based on the assessment of the experience of implementing the regulatory impact analysis of individual post-Soviet countries, the peculiarities of the process of their implementation in Armenia and Uzbekistan are revealed. The structural elements of regulatory impact analysis are singled out: the purpose of regulatory impact analysis; characteristics of the formation of regulatory impact analysis; determination of the subject or area of the regulatory legal act; identification of institutions dealing with regulatory impact analysis; review of regulatory impact analysis tools; disclosure of methodological features and sources of information. Applicability. The assessment of the experience of implementing the regulatory impact analysis of individual post-Soviet countries was carried out on the basis of selected structural elements of the regulatory impact analysis, which allowed to compare the experience of Armenia and Uzbekistan. Effective tools and positive regulatory legal norms that can be applied in Ukraine are selected. The study of the experience of other countries allowed us to see some methodological and practical issues in the regulatory documents on the regulatory policy of Ukraine and the implementation of regulatory impact analysis, in particular. This article is part of a comprehensive research to improve the regulatory impact analysis in Ukraine based on the identification of best international experience. The finding specified display traits of significant novelty.

Genome-wide analysis of Panax MADS-box genes reveals role of PgMADS41 and PgMADS44 in modulation of root development and ginsenoside synthesis

Panax root is an important material used in food and medicine. Its cultivation and production usually depend on root shape and ginsenoside content. There is limited understanding about the synergistic regulatory mechanisms underlying root development and ginsenoside accumulation in Panax. MADS-box transcription factors possibly play a significant role in regulation of root growth and secondary metabolites. In this study, we identified MADS-box transcription factors of Panax, and found high expression levels of SVP, ANR1 and SOC1-like clade genes in its roots. We confirmed that two SOC1-like genes, PgMADS41 and PgMADS44, bind to expansion gene promoters (PgEXLB5 and PgEXPA13), which contribute to root growth, and to SE-4, CYP716A52v2-4, and β-AS-13 promoters, which participate in ginsenoside Ro biosynthesis. These two genes were found to increase lateral root number and main root length in transgenic Arabidopsis thaliana by improving AtEXLA1, AtEXLA3, AtEXPA5, and AtEXPA6 gene expression. As a non-phytohormone regulatory tool, Ro can stimulate adventitious root growth by influencing their expression and ginsenoside accumulation. Our study provides new insights into the coordinated regulatory function of SOC1-like clade genes in Panax root development and triterpenoid accumulation, paving the way towards understanding root formation and genetic improvement in Panax.

Safety Monitoring of COVID-19 Vaccines: Perspective from the European Medicines Agency.

Prior to deployment of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) vaccines in the European Union in 2021, a high vaccine uptake leading to an unprecedented volume of safety data from spontaneous reports and real-world evidence, was anticipated. The European Medicines Agency (EMA) implemented specific activities to ensure enhanced monitoring of emerging vaccine safety information, including intensive monitoring of reports of adverse events of special interest and the use of observed-to-expected analyses. The EMA also commissioned several independent observational studies using a large network of electronic healthcare databases and primary data collection via mobile and web-based applications. This preparedness was key for two high-profile safety signals: thrombosis with thrombocytopenia syndrome (TTS), a new clinical entity associated with adenovirus-vectored vaccines, and myocarditis/pericarditis with messenger RNA vaccines. With no existing case definition nor background rates, the signal of TTS posed particular challenges. Nevertheless, it was rapidly identified, evaluated, contextualized and the risk minimized thanks to close surveillance and an efficient use of available evidence, clinical expertise and flexible regulatory tools. The two signals illustrated the complementarity between spontaneous and real-world data, the former enabling rapid risk identification and communication, the latter enabling further characterization. The COVID-19 pandemic has tremendously enhanced the development of tools and methods to harness the unprecedented volume of safety data generated for the vaccines. Areas for further improvement include the need for better and harmonized data collection across Member States (e.g., stratified vaccine exposure) to support signal evaluation in all population groups, risk contextualization, and safety communication.

Governing Resilience Planning: Organizational Structures, Institutional Rules, and Fiscal Incentives in Guangzhou

Researchers and policymakers have long called for a collaborative governance process for climate adaptation and flood resilience. However, this is usually challenging when urban planning is supposed to be integrated with water management. Using the Chinese city of Guangzhou as a case study, this study explores the long-term disadvantaged conditions of urban planning in flood governance and how this situation is shaped. The findings show that, in comparison to the increasingly dominant position of water management in flood affairs, the urban planning system has had weak powers, limited legitimate opportunities, and insufficient fiscal incentives from the 2000s to the late 2010s. Those conditions have been shaped by organizational structures, institutional rules, and financial allocation in urban governance, whose changes did not bring benefits to urban planning. The emergence of the Sponge City Program in China in 2017 and its implementation at the municipal level is deemed to be a new start for urban planning, considering the encouragement of nature-based solutions and regulatory tools in land use for flood resilience. Even so, the future of this program is still full of challenges and more efforts are needed.

Kinetic competition between theophylline sensitive ribozyme cleavage and termination in living cells by 3D orbital tracking-fluorescent cross-correlation spectroscopy.

Synthetic RNA-based regulatory tools such as riboswitches are promising candidates for the realization of complex engineered genetic circuits. However, previous efforts to implement such tools in synthetic biology have yielded inconsistent results. Often the quantification of performance is measured using protein expression, even though these devices act at the RNA level. To overcome this, we use in vivo RNA labeling of Hemoglobin B in Human Epithelial Kidney T-Rex Cells to determine two objectives. First, we will determine whether a theophylline-dependent hammerhead ribozyme riboswitch alters gene expression by inducing early termination of transcription or via post-transcriptional mRNA cleavage. The second objective will use a self-cleaving hammerhead ribozyme to separate transcription elongation from termination. This will allow for the determination of transcription termination kinetics. Quantification for both objectives will be completed using 3D Orbital Tracking-Fluorescent Cross-Correlation Spectroscopy (3DOT-FCCS). To determine the levels of post-transcription mRNA cleavage, we will use Raster Image Correlation Spectroscopy (RICS) to measure mRNA stability via mRNA lifetime. Preliminary data suggests that the theophylline aptamer stabilizes the ribozyme, correlating to an increased RNA dwell time and termination. However, when the aptamer is absent, there is a decrease. This indicates early termination and premature transcript release from the DNA template are occurring with the ribozyme. In the future, we will examine the transcribing order of Intron 1 and Intron 2, splicing behaviors, post-termination splicing using RICS, and RNA lifetime.

LEGAL ASPECTS OF THE CENTRAL BANK’S GREEN FINANCE INSTRUMENTS IN INDONESIA: AN OVERVIEW

For experts in the field of central banking, the growth of green finance presents a significant opportunity for of research. This rapid emergence of green finance springs from the urgent need to address the threat of climate damage and the important role of central banks in supporting this transition to sustainability. In this study, we utilise the legal instruments framework proposed by Volz to analyse the legal aspects of green finance within the context of the central bank in Indonesia. Our findings indicate that Bank Indonesia, as well as the Financial Service Authority, has a range of regulatory tools at its disposal to influence borrowing and lending policies, as well as investment choices. Several green finance instruments have been created under Indonesian laws and regulations, including loan to value/finance to value, green finance guidelines and frameworks, and affirmative measures to support green finance. The future of the legal framework on green finance in Indonesia looks promising, with the implementation of sustainable finance from businesses and support from the government. However, there is still room for Bank Indonesia to adopt additional regulatory instruments, such as incentives for redirecting resources to low-carbon investments to further promote sustainable finance.

Pay-for-performance and tools for quality assurance in health care

Ongoing health care reforms in the countries of Southeast Europe (SEE) to modernise and promote the health sector include the introduction of innovative payment methods for health care providers in hospitals and outpatient services. The idea of remunerating health workers according to the work they do and the results they achieve has been present in the countries of SEE for more than four decades. This includes the need to develop and implement objective measures and criteria to regulate the work of health facilities and health professionals. Implementing the "Pay-for-performance" (P4P) model is a major challenge with the risk of compromising the quality of health services in all countries, and positive experiences for quality assurance have been modest in many countries around the world. Standards and norms (S/N), clinical pathways (CPW) and checklists (CL) are necessary regulatory tools that complement each other to protect the quality of health services and implement the "Payment for success" (P4S) model. The absence of S/N, CPW and CL in the implementation of the P4P model leads to inefficiencies, inadequate/unrealistic numbers, and poor quality of health services, as well as more frequent medical errors. With the development, introduction and implementation of S/N, CPW and CL in the application of the P4S model, everyone benefits: patients, healthcare organisations and their employees, health insurance companies, ministries of health and the state.

Systematic Comparison and Rational Design of Theophylline Riboswitches for Effective Gene Repression.

Riboswitches are promising regulatory tools in synthetic biology. To date, 25 theophylline riboswitches have been developed for regulation of gene expression in bacteria. However, no one has systematically evaluated their regulatory effects. To promote efficient selection and application of theophylline riboswitches, we examined 25 theophylline riboswitches in Escherichia coli MG1655 and found that they varied widely in terms of activation/repression ratios and expression levels in the absence of theophylline. Of the 20 riboswitches that activate gene expression, only one exhibited a high activation ratio (63.6-fold) and low expression level without theophylline. Furthermore, none of the five riboswitches that repress gene expression were more than 2.0-fold efficient. To obtain an effective repression system, we rationally designed a novel theophylline riboswitch to control a downstream gene or genes by premature transcription termination. This riboswitch allowed theophylline-dependent downregulation of the TurboRFP reporter in a dose- and time-dependent manner. Its performance profile exceeded those of previously described repressive theophylline riboswitches. We then introduced as the second part a RepA tag (protein degradation tag) coding sequence fused at the 5'-terminal end of the turborfp gene, which further reduced protein level, while not reducing the repressive effect of the riboswitch. By combining two tandem theophylline riboswitches with a RepA tag, we constructed a regulatory cassette that represses the expression of the gene(s) of interest at both the transcriptional and posttranslational levels. This regulatory cassette can be used to repress the expression of any gene of interest and represents a crucial step toward harnessing theophylline riboswitches and expanding the synthetic biology toolbox. IMPORTANCE A variety of gene expression regulation tools with significant regulatory effects are essential for the construction of complex gene circuits in synthetic biology. Riboswitches have received wide attention due to their unique biochemical, structural, and genetic properties. Here, we have not only systematically and precisely characterized the regulatory properties of previously developed theophylline riboswitches but also engineered a novel repressive theophylline riboswitch acting at the transcriptional level. By introducing coding sequences of a tandem riboswitch and a RepA protein degradation tag at the 5' end of the reporter gene, we successfully constructed a simple and effective regulatory cassette for gene regulation. Our work provides useful biological components for the construction of synthetic biology gene circuits.

Identification of a Rho-Dependent Termination Site In Vivo Using Synthetic Small RNA.

Rho promotes Rho-dependent termination (RDT) at the Rho-dependent terminator, producing a variable-length region without secondary structure at the 3' end of mRNA. Determining the exact RDT site in vivo is challenging, because the 3' end of mRNA is rapidly removed after RDT by 3'-to-5' exonuclease processing. Here, we applied synthetic small RNA (sysRNA) to identify the RDT region in vivo by exploiting its complementary base-pairing ability to target mRNA. Through the combined analyses of rapid amplification of cDNA 3' ends, primer extension, and capillary electrophoresis, we could precisely map and quantify mRNA 3' ends. We found that complementary double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) formed between sysRNA and mRNA was efficiently cleaved by RNase III in the middle of the dsRNA region. The formation of dsRNA appeared to protect the cleaved RNA 3' ends from rapid degradation by 3'-to-5' exonuclease, thereby stabilizing the mRNA 3' end. We further verified that the signal intensity at the 3' end was positively correlated with the amount of mRNA. By constructing a series of sysRNAs with close target sites and comparing the difference in signal intensity at the 3' end of wild-type and Rho-impaired strains, we finally identified a region of increased mRNA expression within the 21-bp range, which was determined as the RDT region. Our results demonstrated the ability to use sysRNA as a novel tool to identify RDT regions in vivo and expand the range of applications of sysRNA. IMPORTANCE sysRNA, which was formerly widely employed, has steadily lost popularity as more novel techniques for suppressing gene expression come into existence because of issues such as unstable inhibition effect and low inhibition efficiency. However, it remains an interesting topic as a regulatory tool due to its ease of design and low metabolic burden on cells. Here, for the first time, we discovered a new method to identify RDT regions in vivo using sysRNA. This new feature is important because since the discovery of the Rho protein in 1969, specific identification of RDT sites in vivo has been difficult due to the rapid processing of RNA 3' ends by exonucleases, and sysRNA might provide a new approach to address this challenge.

Genome-wide analysis reveals the crucial role of lncRNAs in regulating the expression of genes controlling pollen development.

The genomic location and stage-specific expression pattern of many long non-coding RNAs reveal their critical role in regulating protein-coding genes crucial in pollen developmental progression and male germ line specification. Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) are transcripts longer than 200bp with no apparent protein-coding potential. Multiple investigations have revealed high expression of lncRNAs in plant reproductive organs in a cell and tissue-specific manner. However, their potential role as essential regulators of molecular processes involved in sexual reproduction remains largely unexplored. We have used developing field mustard (Brassica rapa) pollen as a model system for investigating the potential role of lncRNAs in reproductive development. Reference-based transcriptome assembly performed to update the existing genome annotation identified novel expressed protein-coding genes and long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs), including 4347 long intergenic non-coding RNAs (lincRNAs, 1058 expressed) and 2,045 lncRNAs overlapping protein-coding genes on the opposite strand (lncNATs, 780 expressed). The analysis of expression profiles reveals that lncRNAs are significant and stage-specific contributors to the gene expression profile of developing pollen. Gene co-expression networks accompanied by genome location analysis identified 38 cis-acting lincRNA, 31 cis-acting lncNAT, 7 trans-acting lincRNA and 14 trans-acting lncNAT to be substantially co-expressed with target protein-coding genes involved in biological processes regulating pollen development and male lineage specification. These findings provide a foundation for future research aiming at developing strategies to employ lncRNAs as regulatory tools for gene expression control during reproductive development.

Tacit Concepts of Family in Legislation on Assisted Reproduction

Abstract This article examines the joint corpus of family and health legislation and practices to analyse the notions behind the Danish regulation of assisted reproduction. It introduces an analytical framework, which encompasses a more comprehensive approach and encapsulates the variety of regulatory tools that expressly or implicitly create restrictions on the provision of assisted reproduction. By providing a generally applicable framework for analyses of the de facto regulation to expose possible underlying tacit concepts, this article makes a methodological contribution to enhance the understanding of the intermingling fields of family and reproductive law. The analysis in this article shows that eligibility for receiving infertility care depends on one’s current family constellation and it is not children per se, which are the focal point. Surprisingly neither is the nuclear family. Rather, the consummation of the relationship between a man and a woman through one shared child is at the core of the regulation. Archaic notions of family and gender expectations are thus revealed. The article concludes by discussing how the raison d'être behind the regulation could have been something other than a specific concept of family. In this way, the article invites others to analyse their national regulation of assisted reproduction and to contribute to an international discussion about whom, in the pursuit of family formation through ART treatment, has an underprivileged status.

Anthropogenic marine litter: An approach to environmental quality for India's southeastern Arabian Sea coast

Anthropogenic marine litter (AML), mainly plastic, is a global concern that is persistent and widespread. To prevent and mitigate this threat, we need to understand the magnitude and source of AML. There is limited knowledge about AML pollution on the Indian Coast. In this context, the present study examined the distribution, abundance, typology, and beach quality based on AML along 22 beaches on the southeastern coast of the Arabian Sea. A total of 4911 AML items were classified into 9 categories, weighing 16.79 kg, and retrieved from a total area of 8000 m2. The mean abundance and weight of AML in the current study were 0.45 ± 0.34 items/m2 and 1.53 ± 0.92 g/m2, respectively. Thottapally showed the most abundant AML among the studied beaches with 0.96 items/m2, followed by Azheekkal with 0.73 items/m2. Plastic, being the most common item, accounts for 77.6 % of all items and has a mean density of 0.35 items/m2 comprising hard plastic (22 %), thermocol (13 %), food wrappers (7 %), cigarette butts (7 %), plastic rope (6 %), and plastic cutlery (6 %). Hazardous anthropogenic litter (HAL) was maximum at Thottapally (17.71 %; 85 out of 480 items collected). Based on the cleanliness of beaches, they are graded “moderately clean” (63 %) by the General Index (GI), “clean” (54 %), and “moderately clean” (40 %) as calculated by the Clean Coast Index (CCI). Hazardous Anthropogenic Beach Litter Index (HABLI) classifies 72 % of beaches as “moderately safe”, while the Environmental Status Index (ESI) rates 68 % of beaches as “mediocre”. Besides, model simulations demonstrated the pathways of AML propagation, which correlate to the littoral and coastal current flow patterns over the region. Land-based activities were the crucial factors influencing AML distribution. The study highlighted the need for effective regional litter management strategies, policy instruments for the litter impact pathways, economic, regulatory, and behavioural management tools, which were also discussed.

ЛЕГІТИМАЦІЙНІ ТЕХНОЛОГІЇ В МІЖНАРОДНИХ ВІДНОСИНАХ: ТЕОРІЯ ТА ПРАКТИКА

Legitimation technologies in international relations are an important means of influencing and regulating relations between states. They are used to acquire legitimacy, support and recognition of political power, as well as to create a favorable international environment for the realization of political and economic interests. Various legitimation technologies are used in international relations, which help political leaders and organizations gain legitimacy in the eyes of the public. Among the most common are: election processes. constitution and legal framework, public support and legitimacy, mass media and mass media, allied communication technologies, two-vector policy, soft power and others. The scientific novelty can be accounted for by the review of legitimation technologies in solving key challenges in international relations, in particular, in times of geopolitical changes and Russia’s full-scale invasion of Ukraine. The effectiveness of the use of authentication technologies in Ukraine and its role in maintaining and improving attitudes toward the country, attracting international support, and developing partnerships were investigated. Thus, the study expands the understanding of legitimation technologies as a tool that can be used to improve the image of Ukraine, its influence on global international processes, as well as social, cultural and economic enrichment. By applying a technological approach, the main authentication technologies used in the international arena are analyzed. Based on the research of Ukrainian and foreign specialists, a review of this technology is carried ou; the effectiveness of the use of authentication technologies as regulatory tools in international relations is outlined. Strategic areas of activity and effective use of identification technologies in Ukraine during the war and changes in the vector of development in international relations have been formed. The fakes can be used by the authorities to improve the image of the state and its recognition in the international arena. Keywords: world politics; legitimation; публічна дипломатія; public diplomacy; digital diplomacy; soft power.

Noise points as an instrument to measure (and limit) noise exposure – empirical findings from Europe 2015-2020

Aircraft noise is the biggest environmental problem around airports, as it has a negative impact on the health of local residents. Therefore, aircraft noise is an important constraint in airport development. Residents' concerns can lead to restrictions on airport capacity, as in the recent case of Amsterdam Schiphol. At this airport, a reduction/limitation of aircraft movements was chosen as a policy instrument to reduce noise impact. Such an approach can be criticized from the point of views of economic efficiency and noise impact among others, as only the number of aircraft movements is taken into account and neither different noise levels nor departure/approach times are not considered. However, the latter parameters also have a significant noise impact, e.g. the different noise levels caused by different types of aircraft. Furthermore, airlines have no advantage in using modern, quieter aircraft or avoiding evening or night for operations if only the number of movements are considered in a regulatory policy. In the worst case such simple restrictions can even have negative impacts on the health of local residents. In this paper, the authors present an alternative approach in which the noise impact at an airport is quantified by different noise point systems. The idea of such systems is similar to the quota count used for London airports at night. Two different options for calculating noise points are presented. The noise point systems are applied to available data of aircraft movements at European airports for the period 2015-2020. Due to the current relevance for aviation policy, a special focus is placed on Amsterdam Schiphol in the analysis and discussion. Based on empirical data, it can be shown that decoupling noise impact from the number of aircraft movements is possible for major European airports, even in a relatively limited time frame. Furthermore, noise point systems could not only be used for noise monitoring, but also as a regulatory tool that ensures the limitation (or even reduction) of noise impact while allowing for a more sustainable growth of the air transport system. From the point of view of noise impact and economic efficiency, such an approach is preferable to a restriction of aircraft movements.

Pro-environmental elements in the business model of medium and large Polish road freight carriers

Purpose: The policy of sustainable development places requirements on businesses to reduce their negative environmental impact. One of the sectors of the economy that is responsible for greenhouse gas emissions is road transportation. Consideration of the European Union’s environmental goals is forcing road carriers to have environmental measures built into their business models. The purpose of the study was to learn how road carriers can reduce their negative environmental impact so that they can fit in with the goals of the environmental policy and to learn about the regulatory tools that the road carriers expect to be able to support these activities. Design/methodology/approach: Data for this study was collected in computer-assisted telephone interviews (CATI). The study was conducted in late 2021 and early 2022 by a Polish company that was responsible for the selection of the sample and the collection of the data. The survey was conducted on a sample of 146 medium and large Polish road freight carriers and was a continuation of a study carried out on the same sample of entities conducted in late 2019 and early 2020 using the same technique. Findings: As part of their fleet policy, in order to fit in with environmental goals, carriers base their business models on the purchase of new means of transportation that meet increasingly stringent emission standards and reinforce environmentally friendly attitudes by buying means of transportation with smaller engine displacement that is tailored to the needs arising from their operations. Pro-environmental operational activities of medium and large Polish road freight carriers involve the use of solutions that change the composition of exhaust gases (AdBlue) and reduce fuel consumption (lowering rolling resistance – energy-efficient tires and lowering air resistance – fairings), and the acquisition of pro-environmental driving skills (eco-driving). Other environmentally friendly measures are to increase the utilisation of the vehicle capacity (cargo consolidation) and to eliminate empty runs by looking for cargo to be carried on the way back and using route planning software. Originality/value: The paper indicates the methods to reduce the negative environmental impact considered in the business models of medium and large road freight carriers, so that they fit in with the environmental policy goals, and indicates their expectations associated with the support for the achievement of zero-emission transportation. The results can be useful in the adoption on both the European and Polish level of policies leading to a zero-carbon economy. Keywords: sustainable business models, road freight transport. Category of the paper: research paper.

OSCE Operational Capacity in the Regulation of Armed Conflicts in the Countries of the Former Eastern Bloc (1991–2021)

The purpose of this article is to present the operational capabilities of the OSCE in regulating armed conflicts and their application in the former Eastern bloc countries. In order to show the role of the OSCE in the regulation of armed conflicts, OSCE operational capabilities have been structured in a conceptual grid including: OSCE regulatory tools – in the form of missions, field offices and field coordinators; regulatory mechanisms and emergency mechanisms applied in the light of the peaceful pathways of OSCE involvement in the regulatory process. The common feature of operation at each phase is the broadly understood maintenance of stability or achieving stability. There are armed conflicts against which the OSCE has selectively used regulatory activity, omitting certain phases of the conflict, and those against which the application of regulatory tools has not led to lasting stabilisation. The results presented in the paper confirm the correctness of considering the above theories against the background of the conflict cycle concept. Institutional and legal analysis and comparative analysis were used in this paper.