Regulation Of Glucose Levels Research Articles

Ethylacetate extracts of the muscles of Anguilla japonica suppress glucose levels in db/db mice via activation of AMP-activated protein kinase

Hypoglycemic effects of ethylacetate extracts of Anguilla japonica (EMA) muscles in db/db mice were investigated. To understand the mechanism responsible for the hypoglycemic effects of EMA, the effects of EMA on AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) activation in L6 myotubes and in vivo using type II diabetic db/db mice were analyzed. In L6 myotubes, the phosphorylation degrees of AMPK and acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC) were markedly increased and glucose uptake was significantly (p<0.001) increased by EMA, compared with untretaed L6 myotubes. However, in L6 myotubes, these effects were abolished by compound C, an AMPK inhibitor. Moreover, EMA significantly reduced non-fasting blood glucose and serum insulin levels, and strongly induced AMPK phosphorylation in skeletal muscle tissues of db/db mice. EMA regulates glucose levels in L6 myotubes and in diabetic mice by activation of AMPK. Beneficial effects for diabetes treatment are indicated.

DIABETES-POST-TRANSLATIONAL PROTEIN MODIFICATION FOR DEVELOPMENT OF NEW DRUGS

Diabetes is a disorder associated with improper use of glucose by the body leading to increased level of glucose in the blood stream. Beta cells in the pancreas produce the hormone insulin, which is responsible for the movement of glucose into cells where it is utilized to produce energy. Due to the shortage of insulin in diabetic condition, the level of glucose in the bloodstream increases. The level of glucose within cells fall and thus the cells are not able to produce energy using glucose. It also gives rise to various other complications such as blindness, kidney failure, numbness in toes, delayed wound healing, cardiovascular complications, weight gain, loss of consciousness, disorientation etc. which in itself may be dangerous. The root cause of diabetes may either be lack of insulin being produced by the pancreas or development of resistance towards insulin leading to no effect of insulin on the glucose level. Post-translational modifications of protein control various biological processes. It is also considered as an important process in the pathogenesis of diabetes mellitus.In the current review, we will discuss the recent developments in post translational modification of genes associated with diabetes as well as epigenetic modification and metabolic memory that maybe responsible for the onset of diabetes and its associated complications. Currently research is being conducted on high molecular weight adiponectin, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARγ), epigenetic histone modifications and Calpain 10 (CAPN10 gene encoded) protein based upon the post translational modifications they undergo and how these modifications affect glucose level regulation. This review article aims at shedding light upon recent advances in biotechnology that are focussed on studying the nature of protein modifications that result in diabetes and finding ways to prevent these modifications or stimulate a new modification that may result in better control of the disease state if not a cure.

Simulated gastrointestinal digestion, intestinal permeation and plasma protein interaction of white, green, and black tea polyphenols

The gastrointestinal digestion, intestinal permeation, and plasma protein interaction of polyphenols from a single tea cultivar at different stages of processing (white, green, and black teas) were simulated. The salivary phase contained 74.8–99.5% of native polyphenols, suggesting potential bioavailability of significant amounts of antioxidants through the oral mucosal epithelium that might be gastric sensitive and/or poorly absorbed in the intestine. White tea had the highest content and provided the best intestinal bioaccessibility and bioavailability for catechins. Since most of native catechins were not absorbed, they were expected to accumulate in the intestinal lumen where a potential inhibition capacity of cellular glucose and cholesterol uptake was assumed. The permeated catechins (approximately, 2–15% of intestinal levels) significantly bound (about 37%) to plasma HDLs, suggesting a major role in cholesterol metabolism. White tea and its potential nutraceuticals could be effective in the regulation of plasma glucose and cholesterol levels.

Regulation of glucose level during late pregnancy and onset of lactation in Egyptian female Baladi goats

The present study aimed to evaluate the hormonal regulation of blood glucose level during late pregnancy and onset of lactation in Egyptian female Baladi does. Seven healthy female Baladi goats were used to study glucose levels and its hormonal regulation during late pregnancy and early lactation. Blood Samples were collected at late pregnancy (6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, weeks, and one day before parturition); day of parturition and early lactation (1, 2, 3 and 4 weeks after parturition). Plasma cortisol, insulin and glucose were determined. The obtained results revealed that plasma cortisol remained low during late pregnancy and then increased significantly (P<0.05) one day before parturition then decreased on the day of parturition and remained low for one week after parturition. Cortisol level increased markedly at 2, 3 and 4 weeks after parturition. Plasma insulin remained low at 6, 5, 4 and 3 weeks prepartum. A significant increase was noticed at 2 weeks, 1 week and one day before parturition. Insulin concentrations decreased markedly on the day of parturition, then increased (P<0.05) during the postpartum period. Plasma glucose concentrations remained low during late pregnancy then increased at one day before parturition, on the day of parturition and remained elevated during postpartum period. It could be concluded that late pregnancy and early lactation in does were accompanied by significant changes in plasma cortisol, insulin and glucose concentrations. Glucose levels during late pregnancy and early lactation are highly correlated with cortisol and less correlated with insulin. The results obtained point out justification of administration of cortisol. This will help in treatment of pregnancy toxaemia in does and ensure good health during the very demanding physiological states of late pregnancy and early lactation.

Association of adiponectin gene (ADIPOQ) rs2241766 polymorphism with obesity in adults: a meta-analysis.

BackgroundAdiponectin plays an important role in regulating glucose levels and fatty acid oxidation. Multiple studies have assessed the association between rs2241766 polymorphism in the adiponectin (ADIPOQ) gene and obesity susceptibility. However, the results are inconsistent and inconclusive. The aim of this meta-analysis was to investigate this association in adults.MethodSeveral electronic databases were searched for relevant literature published up to November 2013. Statistical analyses were performed using software Review Manager (Version 5.02) and STATA (Version 10.0). The pooled odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated with a random-effects model or a fixed-effect model depending on heterogeneity among studies. Q tests and Egger’s tests were performed to assess heterogeneity and publication bias. Sensitivity analysis was conducted to confirm the reliability and stability of the meta-analysis.ResultsA total of 2,819 obese and 3,024 controls in 18 case-control studies were included in the meta-analysis. The results indicated that compared with TT genotype, the ADIPOQ-rs2241766 GG genotype was associated with an increased risk for obesity (OR = 1.39, 95% CI: 1.11–1.73, P for heterogeneity = 0.520, I2 = 0%) in overall studies. Whereas, GT genotype was associated with a borderland increased risk for obesity (OR = 1.13, 95% CI: 0.94–1.36, P for heterogeneity = 0.006, I2 = 51%). The susceptibility of obesity was increased based on genotypes of TT<GT<GG (P for trend = 0.011). Subgroup analysis of different regions revealed that the ADIPOQ-rs2241766 GG genotype increased obesity risk in the Chinese studies (OR = 1.54, 95% CI: 1.19–2.00) but not in the non-Chinese studies (OR = 1.02, 95% CI: 0.66–1.58). Similar results were observed in allelic, recessive, and dominant genetic models. There was no significant evidence of publication bias in the overall, Chinese, and non-Chinese studies (P = 0.426, P = 0.935, and P = 0.390, respectively).ConclusionThe results of this meta-analysis suggest that the ADIPOQ-rs2241766 G/T polymorphism might be associated with obesity in Chinese studies but not in non-Chinese studies in adults. Better-designed studies that consider confounding factors and assess larger sample sizes with a focus on ADIPOQ-rs2241766G/T polymorphisms and obesity are required in the future.

A novel role of 3‐iodothyronamine (T1AM) as a master regulator of lipid and glucose metabolism through activating sirtuins 4 and 6 genes (373.7)

Objectives: T1AM subchronic low doses cause rapid lipolysis and weight loss with no change in food consumption. We investigated tissue specific effects of T1AM, a natural thyroid hormone analog, on metabolic pathways and associated transcriptional gene signaling and protein profiles.Methods: Three groups (n=5), randomly selected spontaneously obese female CD ‐1 mice were injected once daily for 7 days with saline, 10 mg/kg T1AM, or 25 mg/kg T1AM. Blood drawn on days ‐3, 4, and 7, was analyzed by 1H‐NMR. Mice were sacrificed on day 7 and the organs collected for real‐time PCR and protein profiles.Results: Multivariate analysis of the 1H‐NMR data revealed increased 3‐hydroxybutyrate and acetate and no differences in plasma glucose levels in T1AM‐treated vs. control mice, . Mice treated with high dose T1AM show significant changes in tissue specific gene expression. The livers had increased expression of SIRT6 and GCK, and decreased expression of SIRT4, but in adipose tissue only SIRT6 increased. Protein expression studies confirmed over‐expression of SIRT6 and GCK in liver.Conclusions: SIRT6 functions as a master gene regulator of glucose levels by maintaining the normal cell processes converting glucose into energy, SIRT4 functions as a negative regulator of fatty acids oxidative metabolism. Our results indicate that T1AM can act as a master regulator of both glucose and fat metabolism in obese mice.Grant Funding Source: Supported by NIH/NIDCD (R01DC009818)

Lipoic acid induced weight loss (575.6)

Lipoic Acid Induced Weight Loss Over 1.4 billion adults worldwide are considered overweight or obese. Obesity occurs when a person’s body initiates a cycle in which glucose imbalances promote lipogenesis and increases oxidative stress which may cause certain diseases. Prior research has demonstrated that Lipoic Acid (LA) has the ability to act as an insulin mimic as well as an antioxidant. Its insulin mimic capabilities allow it to regulate glucose levels and its antioxidant potential may protect against oxidative damage. However, very little research has been done on its possible beneficial effects in combating obesity. This study aims to demonstrate how supplementation with LA assists in weight loss with no change in life style. The results showed a significant decrease in body mass (in weight) in mice supplemented with LA when compared to those that were not exposed to LA. This study proposes the initial steps to facilitating the prevention of obesity and its related health complications through supplementation.Grant Funding Source: Supported by Title V STEM

Effect of Adiponectin Level in Type II Diabetic Postmenopausal Women Compared to Healthy Women

Adiponectin is protein secreted from adipose tissue and plays important role in regulating glucose level as well as fatty acid breakdown. Adipose tissue has been considered an important endocrine organ. Adiponectin has been shown to completely reverse insulin resistance. A total of sixty subjects involved in this study to examine the regulatory roles of adiponectin concentration in diabetic type II postmenopausal women and to study the correlation between the parameters (serum glucose, cholesterol and triglyceride). Thirty of each diabetic women (BMI<30) and healthy postmenopausal women (BMI<30) were selected from Baghdad teaching hospital in Baghdad/ Iraq. ELISA (enzyme linked immune sorbent assay) technique was used for the measurement of serum adiponectin. Blood glucose, cholesterol and triglyceride were determined by using colorimetric method. Results showed that the level of serum adiponectin in diabetic postmenopausal women were significantly (P < 0.01) lower than that of non diabetic postmenopausal women. Serum glucose in diabetic postmenopausal women was significantly (P < 0.01) higher than non-diabetic women. The present study indicates the possibility of future development of new anti-diabetic agents that act independent of insulin action.

Effects of individual branched-chain amino acids deprivation on insulin sensitivity and glucose metabolism in mice

ObjectiveWe recently discovered that leucine deprivation increases hepatic insulin sensitivity via general control nondepressible (GCN) 2/mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) and AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) pathways. The goal of the present study was to investigate whether the above effects were leucine specific or were also induced by deficiency of other branched chain amino acids including valine and isoleucine. MethodsFollowing depletion of BCAAs, changes in metabolic parameters and the expression of genes and proteins involved in regulation of insulin sensitivity and glucose metabolism were analyzed in mice and cell lines including human HepG2 cells, primary mouse hepatocytes and a mouse myoblast cell line C2C12. ResultsValine or isoleucine deprivation for 7days has similar effect on improving insulin sensitivity as leucine, in wild type and insulin-resistant mice models. These effects are possibly mediated by decreased mTOR/S6K1 and increased AMPK signaling pathways, in a GCN2-dependent manner. Similar observations were obtained in in vitro studies. In contrast to leucine withdrawal, valine or isoleucine deprivation for 7days significantly decreased fed blood glucose levels, possibly due to reduced expression of a key gluconeogenesis gene, glucose-6-phosphatase. Finally, insulin sensitivity was rapidly improved in mice 1day following maintenance on a diet deficient for any individual BCAAs. ConclusionsOur results show that while improvement on insulin sensitivity is a general feature of BCAAs depletion, individual BCAAs have specific effects on metabolic pathways, including those that regulate glucose level. These observations provide a conceptual framework for delineating the molecular mechanisms that underlie amino acid regulation of insulin sensitivity.

Duodenal-Jejunal Bypass Liner to Treat Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus in Morbidly Obese Patients

Endoscopic placement of the duodenal-jejunal bypass liner (DJBL) in morbidly obese patients induces significant weight loss. Additionally, early studies reported significant improvements in several parameters of glucose homeostasis in morbidly obese patients with T2DM. The observed glycemic control occurred soon after device placement, after a minimal weight loss, suggesting the activation of weight loss-independent anti-diabetic mechanisms of glucose normalization. This effect is associated with favorable changes in hormones involved in glucose level regulation. Recently, larger clinical studies, focused primarily on the effect of the DJBL on T2DM treatment, have corroborated initial observations not only in morbidly obese patients but in non-morbidly obese diabetic patients as well. In this article we review the evidence from preclinical animal and clinical human studies that support the efficacy of DJBL to treat T2DM in obese patients.

Relationship between Glucose and Pancreatic Hormones during the Embryonic and Postnatal Phase in Chickens

Insulin plays a vital role in the regulation of glucose levels in the bloodstream. Chickens have similar circulating insulin concentrations compared to mammals but still maintain high plasma glucose levels. This phenomenon may be a consequence of the development of insulin resistance early in posthatch life, which may be the result of pertubations in the insulin signalling cascade. In addition, our study demonstrates that the response of plasma glucose and the hepatic glucose transporter 2 mRNA to insulin in broiler chicks during the perinatal period is age-dependent. This review addresses the relationship between glucose and pancreatic hormones in embryonic and posthatch stages in the life cycle of the domestic chicken.

Increased Density of Demodex folliculorum Mites in Pregnancies with Gestational Diabetes

Objective: To investigate the presence of Demodex in patients with gestational diabetes and the impact of glucose regulation on Demodex density in gestational diabetes. Subjects and Methods: The study population consisted of 33 patients with gestational diabetes and 30 pregnant women without gestational diabetes (control group). The age, parity, gestational age, and BMI of the study group were recorded and the patients were divided into 2 groups, i.e. those with regulated and unregulated glucose levels, according to their postprandial 1st- and 2nd-hour glucose values. A standardized skin surface biopsy method was used to determine if patients had Demodex folliculorum infestation (>5 mites/cm² of skin). Results: Patients with gestational diabetes had a statistically significantly higher Demodex density compared to the control group (24.2 vs. 3.3%; p < 0.001). Furthermore, a significantly higher proportion of gestational diabetes patients with unregulated glucose levels had a higher Demodex density compared to those in the regulated subgroup (6/19 vs. 2/14; p = 0.001). Conclusion: Our study revealed that the Demodex density was increased in gestational diabetes patients. Further, poor glucose regulation could be the mechanism responsible for the increased Demodex density in gestational diabetes patients with unregulated glucose levels compared to those with regulated glucose levels.

Replication of Interactions between Genome-Wide Genetic Variants and Body Mass Index in Fasting Glucose and Insulin Levels.

The genetic regulation of glucose and insulin levels might be modified by adiposity. With regard to the genetic factors that are altered by adiposity, a large meta-analysis on the interactions between genetic variants and body mass index with regard to fasting glucose and insulin levels was reported by the Meta-Analyses of Glucose- and Insulin-related trait Consortium (MAGIC), based on European ancestry. Because no replication study has been performed in other ethnic groups, we first examined the link between reported single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and fasting glucose and insulin levels in a large Korean cohort (Korean Genome and Epidemiology Study cohort [KoGES], n = 5,814). The MAGIC study reported 7 novel SNPs for fasting glucose levels and 6 novel SNPs for fasting insulin levels. In this study, we attempted to replicate the association of 5 SNPs with fasting glucose levels and 5 SNPs with fasting insulin levels. One SNP (rs2293941) in PDX1 was identified as a significant obesity-modifiable factor in Koreans. Our results indicate that the novel loci that were identified by MAGIC are poorly replicated in other ethnic groups, although we do not know why.

Chondroitin sulfate-capped gold nanoparticles for the oral delivery of insulin

Chondroitin sulfate (CS)-capped gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) were synthesized and its feasibility for oral insulin (INS) delivery was investigated in vivo. CS was used as both reducing and stabilizing agent in the synthesis of AuNPs with around 48nm mean diameter, narrow size distribution, and negative zeta potential. After loading INS into CS-capped AuNPs structure, NPs with about 123nm mean diameter, narrow size distribution, and negative zeta potential were successfully fabricated. By surface plasmon resonance (SPR) measurement, 0.5% (w/v) CS was chosen for the synthesis of AuNPs. Stability of AuNPs and AuNPs/INS was maintained for 7 weeks according to SPR study. Cytotoxicity of AuNPs/INS in Caco-2 cells was measured and no significant cytotoxicity was observed in tested AuNPs concentration range. In the streptozotocin-induced diabetic rat model, the oral administration of AuNPs/INS exhibited an efficient regulation of glucose level, compared to INS solution-treated group. The mean INS concentration in plasma at 120min after oral administration of AuNPs/INS was 6.61-fold higher than that of INS solution-administered group. All of these findings indicate the successful application of CS-capped AuNPs for oral delivery of INS to the therapy of diabetes.

Association of Ketone Body Levels With Hyperglycemia and Type 2 Diabetes in 9,398 Finnish Men

We investigated the association of the levels of ketone bodies (KBs) with hyperglycemia and with 62 genetic risk variants regulating glucose levels or type 2 diabetes in the population-based Metabolic Syndrome in Men (METSIM) study, including 9,398 Finnish men without diabetes or newly diagnosed type 2 diabetes. Increasing fasting and 2-h plasma glucose levels were associated with elevated levels of acetoacetate (AcAc) and β-hydroxybutyrate (BHB). AcAc and BHB predicted an increase in the glucose area under the curve in an oral glucose tolerance test, and AcAc predicted the conversion to type 2 diabetes in a 5-year follow-up of the METSIM cohort. Impaired insulin secretion, but not insulin resistance, explained these findings. Of the 62 single nucleotide polymorphisms associated with the risk of type 2 diabetes or hyperglycemia, the glucose-increasing C allele of GCKR significantly associated with elevated levels of fasting BHB levels. Adipose tissue mRNA expression levels of genes involved in ketolysis were significantly associated with insulin sensitivity (Matsuda index). In conclusion, high levels of KBs predicted subsequent worsening of hyperglycemia, and a common variant of GCKR was significantly associated with BHB levels.

Some considerations about the consensus document “Detection of thyroid dysfunction in pregnant women: Universal screening is justified”

Cocoa extracts rich in polyphenols are used as potential agent for treating diabetes. Cocoa polyphenols have been proved to ameliorate important hallmarks of type-2 diabetes (T2D). They can regulate glucose levels by increasing insulin secretion, promoting β-cell proliferation and a reduction of insulin resistance. In addition, epidemiological evidence indicates that consumption of flavonoid decreases the incidence of T2D.T2D is preceded by a prediabetic state in which the endocrine-metabolic changes described in T2D are already present. Since epidemiological evidence indicates that consumption of flavonoid decreases its incidence, we evaluated possible preventive effects of polyphenol-enriched cocoa extract on a model of prediabetes induced by sucrose.We determined circulating parameters and insulin sensitivity indexes, liver protein carbonyl groups and reduced glutathione, liver mRNA expression levels of lipogenic enzymes, expression of different pro-inflammatory mediators, fructokinase activity and liver glycogen content. For that, radioimmunoassay, real-time polymerase chain reaction, Western blot, spectrophotometry, and immunohistochemistry were used.We demonstrated that sucrose administration triggered hypertriglyceridemia, insulin-resistance, and liver increased oxidative stress and inflammation markers compared to control rats. Additionally, we found an increase in glycogen deposit, fructokinase activity, and lipogenic genes expression (SREBP-1c, FAS and GPAT) together with a decrease in P-Akt and P-eNOS protein content (P < 0.05). Sucrose-induced insulin resistance, hepatic carbohydrate and lipid dysmetabolism, oxidative stress, and inflammation were effectively disrupted by polyphenol-enriched cocoa extract (PECE) co-administration (P < 0.05).Dietary administration of cocoa flavanols may be an effective and complementary tool for preventing or reverting T2D at an early stage of its development (prediabetes).

Effects of food-deprivation and refeeding on the regulation and sources of blood glucose appearance in European seabass (Dicentrarchus labrax L.)

Sources of blood glucose in European seabass (initial weight 218.0±43.0g; mean±S.D., n=18) were quantified by supplementing seawater with deuterated water (5%-2H2O) for 72h and analyzing blood glucose 2H-enrichments by 2H NMR. Three different nutritional states were studied: continuously fed, 21-day of fast and 21-day fast followed by 3days of refeeding. Plasma glucose levels (mM) were 10.7±6.3 (fed), 4.8±1.2 (fasted), and 9.3±1.4 (refed) (means±S.D., n=6), showing poor glycemic control. For all conditions, 2H-enrichment of glucose position 5 was equivalent to that of position 2 indicating that blood glucose appearance from endogenous glucose 6-phosphate (G6P) was derived by gluconeogenesis. G6P-derived glucose accounted for 65±7% and 44±10% of blood glucose appearance in fed and refed fish, respectively, with the unlabeled fraction assumed to be derived from dietary carbohydrate (35±7% and 56±10%, respectively). For 21-day fasted fish, blood glucose appearance also had significant contributions from unlabeled glucose (52±16%) despite the unavailability of dietary carbohydrates. To assess the role of hepatic enzymes in glycemic control, activity and mRNA levels of hepatic glucokinase (GK) and glucose 6-phosphatase (G6Pase) were assessed. Both G6Pase activity and expression declined with fasting indicating the absence of a classical counter-regulatory stimulation of hepatic glucose production in response to declining glucose levels. GK activities were basal during fed and fasted conditions, but were strongly stimulated by refeeding. Overall, hepatic G6Pase and GK showed limited capacity in regulating glucose levels between feeding and fasting states.

Droplet-born air blowing: Novel dissolving microneedle fabrication

The microneedle-mediated drug delivery system has been developed to provide painless self-administration of drugs in a patient-friendly manner. Current dissolving microneedle fabrication methods, however, require harsh conditions for biological drugs and also have problems standardizing the drug dose. Here, we suggested the droplet-born air blowing (DAB) method, which provides gentle (4–25°C) and fast (≤10min) microneedle fabrication conditions without drug loss. The amount of drug in the microneedle can be controlled by the pressure and time of droplet dispenser and the air blowing shapes this droplet to the microneedle, providing a force sufficient to penetrate skin. Also, the introduction of a base structure of two layered DAB-microneedle could provide complete drug delivery without wasting of drug. The DAB-based insulin loaded microneedle shows similar bioavailability (96.6±2.4%) and down regulation of glucose level compared with subcutaneous injection. We anticipate that DAB described herein will be suitable to design dissolving microneedles for use in biological drug delivery to patients.

Sugar Coat It

Rational biomaterial design mimics the body’s mechanism for regulating glucose levels and thus controlling diabetes.

Biomaterials and bioengineering tomorrow’s healthcare

Biomaterials are being used for the healthcare applications from ancient times. But subsequent evolution has made them more versatile and has increased their utility. Biomaterials have revolutionized the areas like bioengineering and tissue engineering for the development of novel strategies to combat life threatening diseases. Together with biomaterials, stem cell technology is also being used to improve the existing healthcare facilities. These concepts and technologies are being used for the treatment of different diseases like cardiac failure, fractures, deep skin injuries, etc. Introduction of nanomaterials on the other hand is becoming a big hope for a better and an affordable healthcare. Technological advancements are underway for the development of continuous monitoring and regulating glucose levels by the implantation of sensor chips. Lab-on-a-chip technology is expected to modernize the diagnostics and make it more easy and regulated. Other area which can improve the tomorrow’s healthcare is drug delivery. Micro-needles have the potential to overcome the limitations of conventional needles and are being studied for the delivery of drugs at different location in human body. There is a huge advancement in the area of scaffold fabrication which has improved the potentiality of tissue engineering. Most emerging scaffolds for tissue engineering are hydrogels and cryogels. Dynamic hydrogels have huge application in tissue engineering and drug delivery. Furthermore, cryogels being supermacroporous allow the attachment and proliferation of most of the mammalian cell types and have shown application in tissue engineering and bioseparation. With further developments we expect these technologies to hit the market in near future which can immensely improve the healthcare facilities.