Reforestation Research Articles

The influence of clear-cut area size on forest regrowth: a case study in the dry tropical forests of Pernambuco, Brazil

The influence of clear-cut area size on forest regrowth: a case study in the dry tropical forests of Pernambuco, Brazil

The Zoʻé perspective on what scientists call “forest management” and its implications for floristic diversity and biocultural conservation

Indigenous perspectives on forest management are grounded in traditional ecological knowledge (TEK), so that socioculture influences the ways Indigenous Peoples transform their landscapes. However, how socioculture structures Indigenous perspectives on forest management is unclear. Moreover, little is known about the influence of Indigenous landscape transformations on forest succession and floristic diversity. Here, we test hypotheses from biocultural and ecological theories suggesting that: (i) key social-ecological relationships with specific taxa structure Indigenous perspectives on forest management; (ii) such relationships guide sustainable management that generates resilient forest regrowth; and (iii) this management promotes floristic diversity by acting as an intermediate disturbance. We collected information about cosmology, occupation history and management among the Zoʻé, in Brazilian Amazonia. We also carried out floristic inventories in old-growth forests and in old Zoʻé swidden-fallow areas to analyze forest structure and alpha- and beta-diversity along a gradient of forest successional stages. We show that the Zoʻé perspective on forest management is structured by an ethical principle involving a social-ecological relationship with different beings, especially the spider monkey (<em>Ateles</em> sp.). This relationship generates mobility among the Zoʻé that allows forest regrowth in their fallow areas, so that in 28 years, forest basal area may equal that of old-growth forests. Also, Zoʻé forest management has increased alpha- and beta-diversity by increasing species richness and diversity in intermediate secondary forests and promoting floristic turnover at the landscape-level. These results show that some aspects of Zoʻé cosmology influence forest disturbance regimes that generate a sustainable social-ecological system, therefore being key for Zoʻé well-being and local biodiversity conservation. We believe that Indigenous perspectives about forest management should be included in forest conservation efforts aimed at protecting Amazonian biocultural diversity, thus valuing TEK and engendering sustainable social-ecological systems.

Leaf-litter frog abundance increases during succession of regenerating pastures

Abstract The extensive clearing and modification of forests by anthropogenic activities is a major driver of biodiversity loss. Declines of common species are especially concerning because of the potentially large cascading effects they might have on ecosystems. Regrowth of secondary forests may help reverse population declines by restoring habitats to similar conditions prior to land conversion but the value of these secondary forests to fauna is not well understood. We compared the abundance of a direct-developing terrestrial frog, Craugastor stejnegerianus, in riparian and upland habitats of pasture, secondary forest, and mature forest sites. Mean abundance per transect was lower in upland pasture compared to mature forest. Secondary forest had similar abundance to mature forest regardless of age. We show that conversion of forest habitat to pasture represents a conservation threat to this species. However, riparian buffers help mitigate the negative effect of conversion of forest to pasture, and regrowth of secondary forest is an effective management strategy for restoring the abundance of this common leaf-litter species.

Remote Sensing for Analyzing Forested Landscape Structure and Land-Use Histories in Guyana’s Bauxite Mining Landscapes

Monitoring secondary forest regrowth is a priority in forest restoration strategies. A site history helps in understanding the present status of natural regeneration in the three landscapes impacted by bauxite mining. Nonetheless, high rainfall in bauxite residue storage areas can facilitate natural regeneration of forest. This research analyzed the natural regeneration of forest after thirty years of different land use histories at three bauxite mining areas of the Upper Demerara—Berbice region of Guyana. There are no man made forest plantations in the three landscapes being reviewed. The methodology included: 1) the selection of three sampling landscapes with different land use histories 2) the generation Land Use/Land Cover maps using KMeans unsupervised classification of satellite images in each landscape and 3) the assessment of landscape structure of the land cover classes for year 2020 at class and landscape level using landscape metrics. The assessment of landscape structure of the land cover classes was carried-out with landscape metrics for the comparisons at class and landscape level. Principal component analysis enables the identification of main patterns among landscape-level metrics and land cover classes. Discriminant classification of the landscape classes was analyzed with the different metrics. The results suggest that Normalized Difference Vegetation Index and KMeans unsupervised classification can be used to evaluate the difference in natural forest regeneration among landscapes with differing land use histories. The landscape metrics revealed secondary stages of forest succession. The Landscape Shape Index and Edge Density were the most significant for landscape differentiation. The result of the various land uses reveals a mosaic of early, intermediate, and late successional sequences.

Charcoal's Role in Nevada Mining and Forest History: Charcoal Pits

Abstract: Charcoal production was a critical adjunct to Nevada's mining industry. It fueled smelters that processed complex gold and silver mineral ores of central and eastern Nevada and was produced in stone and brick charcoal kilns and earthen-covered charcoal pits. Both methods burned wood in a low oxygen environment to obtain a pure carbon residue, i.e., charcoal. The most common production method was in charcoal pits—earth-covered mounds of wood that produced charcoal in quantities far exceeding that produced in kilns. There is still evidence of many thousands of charcoal pits scattered throughout much of Nevada. Beyond the direct evidence of the remains of charcoal kilns and pits, the broader ecological impact of charcoal making in the late 19th century Nevada left its marks on today's landscape. The depletion of Nevada's limited forest resources, especially the destruction of the pinyon-juniper woodlands, driven in no small degree by charcoal production, altered vegetation patterns in terms of forest regrowth, the advance of sagebrush lands, habitat for wildlife, and vulnerability to catastrophic fire.

생태적 산지전용을 활용한 산림복지시설 조성 방안 연구 : 대전 나눔숲체험원 조성계획을 중심으로

Purpose: The desire to experience forests is increasing as urban residents have more leisure time due to increased income, the introduction of a five-day workweek, and economic leeway. The forms for forest welfare services are operated in the form of forest experience centers, forest kindergartens, forest campgrounds, and forest leisure sports facilities, and are created for the purpose of forest education and healing while serving as a local public goods. Method: This study will conduct a literature search within the last 5 years and research and organize terms and design guidelines through theoretical review. In addition, case studies are conducted, and the design content of the Daejeon Sharing Forest Experience Center is analyzed. Result: This study analyzes the “Daejeon Sharing Forest Experience Center Natural Recreation Forest Creation Plan” to which the concept of ecological mountain region conversion is applied, and proposes an alternative to the conservation of the forest environment and the space plan coexisting with humans in the creation of space using forest resources.

Factors to Consider Tourists in Visiting Recreational Forest Tourism at Perum Perhutani East Java

The objective of this research was to understand some factors considered by the visitors of ecotourism recreational forest at Perum Perhutani East Java before deciding visiting the places and to obtain the describtions of the visitors characteristics. This research was conducted in Coban Rondo recreational forest in Malang East Java, with the respondent number of 200 persons. Reliability and Validity was 0,79 and 0,7, so it was concluded that the sample was sufficiently valid and reliable. The result showed that the visitors generally consist of teenagers and young families which have 2 until 3 children. The most favourite activities of the visitors were commonly ecotourism and sport outdoor. So, they generallyknew about recreational forest and made the recreational forest as the main destination. Some of the knew about the recreational forest from internet, their friends from social media, and from their family. They were impressed by the beauty of the forest and willing to come back in the future with their friends and families again. Most of them spent their money and their holidays to visits this areas to get some peace, and to get healing from forests and etc.&#x0D; Families and friends were their partners in visiting the area of the tourism at recreational forest. The decision to visit was made together and they ride their cars to got to the areas.&#x0D; There were 16 factors (chosen from 20 factors variabels) which were combined as the new 6 factors influencing the visits of recreational forest. The factors which considred by the visitors to visit the recreational forest were: qualities of the site, services factors, facility factors, information and acces factors, promotions factors, and price factors. Nevertheless, quality factors were the dominant factors considered by the visitors with eigen value 4,476 and total variables explained of 12,827 %.

Genetic status and conservation implications of endangered Formosan black bears

The Formosan black bear (Ursus thibetanus formosanus, FBB) is an endangered subspecies of Asiatic black bear, geographically isolated in Taiwan from 6 other subspecies on the Asian continent and in Japan. Data on the genetic diversity and structure of wild FBB are lacking, though 2 potential hotspots for FBB occurrence have been identified; Yushan National Park (YNP) and Dasyueshan National Forest Recreation Area (DSY). Elucidating species' genetic structure can help assess the potential risks of population fragmentation and isolation that threaten FBB. Here, we employed 8 FBB-derived microsatellite loci to genotype 139 individuals from fecal samples collected in YNP, 20 captured individuals from both study areas, and 1 fecal sample from DSY, during 2009–2019. The marker set featured high polymorphic information content (mean > 0.699) and appropriate probability of identity (combined P(ID) < 0.0001) for individual identification. We detected high heterozygosity and no evidence of inbreeding in YNP, but the 2 subpopulations presented significant genetic differentiation. All DSY samples were assigned to one genetic cluster or phylogenetic clade, indicating that the DSY subpopulation is monophyletic. However, members of the YNP subpopulation were allocated to diverse lineages, and some YNP samples were partly assigned to the same cluster or clade as DSY individuals. We discuss potential evolutionary scenarios in which the observed population genetic structuring may have evolved. Based on our genetic results, the DSY and YNP subpopulations should be considered 2 separate management units and gene flow between both parts should be promoted.

Distribution of Phytophthora species within recreational chestnut, beech and cork oak forests

Tree decline caused by exotic Phytophthora pathogens is a serious issue affecting forests around the world. The presence of Phytophthora has been reported in heavily visited natural forests; however, whether recreational forests are at higher risk of being attacked by Phytophthora than non-recreational forests has yet to be explored. In this study, we sampled soil from 44 forests in Catalonia (NE Spain) with high or low recreational use that were dominated by chestnut (Castanea sativa), beech (Fagus sylvatica) or cork oak (Quercus suber). A systematic soil sampling of 277 plots in stands of different tree species, predominantly Pinus and Quercus spp., was also conducted across Catalonia to compare soils of recreational forests with high and low recreational use with the baseline incidence of Phytophthora in the region. The putative impacts of the presence of Phytophthora in recreational areas were assessed by measuring tree defoliation and regeneration, and by performing pathogenicity trials using Phytophthora isolates from soil and root samples to inoculate seedlings of tree species growing in the region. The incidence of native and invasive Phytophthora species was higher in chestnut, beech and cork oak forests than in forests of other tree species. For chestnut and beech forests, we found that the likelihood of finding an invasive Phytophthora in forests with high recreational use was more than three times higher than in forests with low recreational use (76% vs 21%, respectively). No differences were observed in cork oak forests. In plots with invasive Phytophthora species, beech exhibited higher defoliation levels than in plots without Phytophthora. The presence of both native and invasive Phytophthora species was associated with lower chestnut and cork oak regeneration. Our data indicate that Phytophthora is widespread in some forests used for recreation and seems to be associated with defoliation and low regeneration. However, the primary mechanism explaining the high prevalence of Phytophthora in recreational areas remains unclear. Disturbance, soil movement due to construction, or visitors moving inoculum within and across sites could be studied as possible contributing factors to establish effective management actions.

ГЕОДЕЗІЯ, КАРТОГРАФІЯ І АЕРОФОТОЗНІМАННЯ

The aims of our paper are to study the territory organization of the forest fund lands of the Skhidnytsya village council (Lviv region), performing their forest management with the development of a system of activities aimed at ensuring scientifically based multifunctional forestry management, protection and rational sustainable use. The possibility of performing cadastral works for the territorial organization of forestry lands using unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) is important for science and practice. The paper considers the main direction of sustainable development of forest areas with a recreational function, aimed at strengthening ecological, social and economic functions and protection of these forests, their rational use. Based on the division of forests into categories, their functional significance, the regime of forestry and forest use for the next revision period, the following economic units were formed: health and recreational forests with a special regime of use in the mountains. The distribution of the total area of health and recreational forests by functional zones, types of landscape, classes of aesthetic assessment, pedestrian accessibility, recreational assessment, resistance to recreational loads, stages of recreational digression, additional assessment is presented. The results obtained prove the practical significance of the use of UAVs for performing work on the organization of the territory (certain category of land), and the resulting cartographic materials fully comply with the instructive accuracy. The developed provisions of this study correspond to the basic principles of sustainable forest management, provide for a combination of economic, environmental and social aspects of forestry activities.

Ecosystem services in recreational forests of Turkey: analysis of national forest policies and scientific studies

This study assesses to what extent ecosystem services are considered when managing three different types of recreational forests in Turkey. Although the number of scientific studies on ecosystem services provided by forests has increased in recent years, the number of cases defining ecosystem services and elaborating them in the forestry legislation or plans in Turkey is limited. This concept is underused in Turkey due to a lack of attention paid to the global agenda and scientific studies at international and national levels. It was found that protection forests in Turkey included services from all ecosystem services except habitat or supporting services. Nature parks also have services from three categories but none from provisioning services. Finally, urban forests include services from only two categories: regulating and cultural services. Ecosystem services must be considered both in city and forest planning. Even though the management of forests is under the sole responsibility of the General Directorate of Forestry, the municipalities should consider it as one of the main stakeholders in city planning. Finally, scientific studies on forest ecosystem services for healthy cities and citizens should be increased, and results should be implemented.

자연휴양림 관광객의 회복환경지각과 관광행동의도의 관계에서 정서적 웰빙의 매개효과: 제암산자연휴양림을 중심으로

The purpose of this study is to verify the mediating effect of mental well-being in a relationship with the effect among the perceived restorative environment for the recreation forest traveler, mental well-being, and tourism behavior intention by applying the attention restoration theory, targeted to the travelers who visit recreation forests. This study used the SPSSWIN 27.0 program for hypothesis testing. Based on these research findings, first, this study has shown that the perceived restorative environment had a positive effect on the mental well-being and tourism behavior intention. Second, as a result of verifying whether mental well-being mediated the relationship between the perceived restorative environment and tourism behavior intention, this study has found that mental well-being played a partial mediating role. Through these results, this researcher considers it can be used as useful data to secure the competitiveness of recreation forests and to prepare a variety of countermeasures.

Layered habitats: An evolutionary model for present-day recreational needs.

Urbanisation and lifestyle-related illnesses increase globally. This highlights the need to shape modern human habitats to support basic recreational needs, promoting such things as physical activity and restoration of high stress levels and cognitive fatigue. Previous research suggests eight perceived qualities in the outdoor environment, described as eight perceived sensory dimensions, as universally meaningful to people in this regard. However quite extensively studied in relation to various health and wellbeing outcomes, human sensitivity and appreciation for these qualities has not yet been explicitly analysed from an evolutionary perspective. This paper investigates their possible evolutionary roots and suggests an order for their development. This is linked with empirical findings on their relative capacity to support restoration of stress and cognitive fatigue. Qualities of earlier origin are suggested to correspond to older, more fundamental adaptations. Each subsequently developed quality implies an increased complexity of our environmental relations, associated with higher demands on more recently developed capacities. The proposed model thus links the more restorative Serene, Sheltered, Natural, and Cohesive perceived sensory dimensions with earlier stages of our development while the more demanding Diverse, Open, Cultural, and Social qualities are associated with more recent transitions. It might be of relevance when shaping modern human habitats from a health-promoting perspective, and have applications in the planning and design of, e.g., health care settings, rehabilitation gardens, urban green areas, recreational forests or other similar outdoor environments.

CHARACTERISTICS OF NATURAL OAK FORESTS AND NATURAL RENEWAL IN THE CONDITIONS OF SE «TULCHINSKE LMG»

It was established that the territory of the farm belongs to the following forest categories: forests of nature protection, scientific, historical and cultural purposes – 1322.4 ha; recreational and health forests – 718 ha; protective forests – 3837.9 ha; exploitation forests – 17,407.7 ha. As a result of conducted field research within the forest fund of the enterprise, it was established that plantations over 100 years old are characterized by the predominance of common oak with the participation of common ash in the composition. It has been established that within the boundaries of the forest and hunting economy, among the areas where it is planned to carry out felling for the main use, plantations that are classified as exploitation forests predominate. The total area of such plantations is 152.3 hectares, and the number of plots is 47. It was determined that the number of areas of oak forests over 100 years old that will be felled in the next audit period during felling of the main use in protective and recreational forests is 6 and 5, respectively. According to the above results, out of the total number of main-use felling plots – 58 forest stands of fresh hornbeam forest – 55. Only 3 plots are located in wet hornbeam forest. Accordingly, the largest areas of main felling areas – 179.9 hectares – are concentrated in fresh hornbeam forest. It was investigated that the territory of the farm belongs to high credit standings (credit rating 1-1a-2). The largest number and area of plots is characterized by the 1st rating (42 plots with an area of 114.0 ha). There are almost 2-3 times less plots of 2 rating (15 plots, with an area of 68.3 hectares). In the process of conducting research, we discovered a significant number of stands with possible natural regeneration. The total share of such stands in relation to the total number is 3.75 %, and from the total area – 4.88 %. Accordingly, the maximum area of a separate plot is 10.5 hectares, and the minimum is 2.5 hectares. According to the conducted research, out of 80 plots, 37 lack any natural regeneration in sufficient quantity.It was determined that the average age of natural renewal is 11 years. The height is 3.6 m, the density of natural regeneration is 7.7 thousand pieces/ha, the average age is 23.6 years.

Estimating the causal effect of forestry programs on forest recovery in a REDD+ priority area in Michoacán, Mexico

We evaluated the causal effect of the forestry programs implemented from 2007 to 2018 on the forest recovery in the municipality of Zitácuaro in central Mexico, part of the Cutzamala region, a REDD+ priority implementation area. We produced detailed land use/land cover (LULC) maps to measure forest loss and recovery in the study period at the municipal level. To evaluate the effect of active forest recovery we used a quasi-experimental design to compare forest cover change between agrarian nuclei with and without forestry programs. Although deforestation was the most dominant forest cover change process in 2007–2018 in Zitácuaro, forest recovery, mostly in the form of forest densification, occurred in areas of comparable size. However, the causal effect of forestry programs on forest cover and density increase at the agrarian nuclei level was negligible. The passive forest regrowth resulting from agricultural abandonment or postfire regeneration could have been more determinant of forest recovery in the study period. Detailed qualitative local data will be needed to understand factors and reasons for passive recovery to support this process in the future.

Using Bayesian multitemporal classification to monitor tropical forest cover changes in Kalimantan, Indonesia

ABSTRACT Significant areas of native forest in Kalimantan, on the island of Borneo, have been cleared for the expansion of plantations of oil palm and rubber. In this study multisource remote sensing was used to develop a time series of land cover maps that distinguish native forest from plantations. Using a study area in east Kalimantan, Landsat images were combined with either ALOS PALSAR or Sentinel-1 images to map four land cover classes (native forest, oil palm plantation, rubber plantation, non-forest). Bayesian multitemporal classification was applied to increase map accuracy and maps were validated using a confusion matrix; final map overall accuracy was >90%. Over 18 years from 2000 to 2018 nearly half the native forests in the study area were converted to either non-forest or plantations of either rubber or oil palm, with the highest losses between 2015 and 2016. Trending upwards from 2008 large areas of degraded or cleared forests, mapped as non-forest, were converted to oil palm plantation. Conversion of native forests to plantation mainly occurred in lowland and wetland forest, while significant forest regrowth was detected in degraded peatland. These maps will help Indonesia with strategies and policies for balancing economic growth and conservation.

Spatial Distribution Characteristics of Japan’s Forest Therapy Bases and Their Influencing Factors

Forest therapy bases are essential ecological recreational locations to promote mental and physical health while at the same time allowing people to enjoy and appreciate the forest. The article took Japan, where the development of forest therapy is in a mature stage, as the research object. Using multi-data and the methodologies of Kernel Density Analysis in ArcGIS and GeoDetector, the spatial distribution characteristics of Japan’s forest therapy bases were investigated, as well as the influencing factors. The results reveal that the spatial distribution of forest therapy bases in Japan is unbalanced, with an aggregated distribution in economically developed and densely populated areas. The spatial density of natural landscape resources, Gross Domestic Product (GDP), the spatial density of population, distance from three major metropolitan areas, rail transit ridership, and spatial density of tourism resources are factors influencing the distribution of forest therapy bases in Japan. The factors interact with each other, forming the spatial distribution pattern. Among these factors, GDP has the greatest explanatory power for the spatial distribution of forest therapy bases in Japan, followed by the distance from Japan’s three major metropolitan areas and spatial density of tourism resources, while the spatial density of population, spatial density of natural landscape resources, and rail transit ridership have a relatively weaker influence on forest therapy bases in Japan. The findings provide some insight into the macroscopic layout of forest therapy bases in various regions of different countries, demonstrating that excellent transportation facilities and good natural resources are the fundamental considerations for the location of forest therapy bases and that densely populated urban areas with a strong economic foundation are key areas for the development of forest therapy bases. Additionally, to take advantage of industrial agglomeration and synergize regional development, considerations for merging with existing resources, such as national parks, forest parks, and recreation forests, should be made.

Soil carbon storage is related to tree functional composition in naturally regenerating tropical forests.

Regenerating tropical forests are increasingly important for their role in the global carbon cycle. Carbon stocks in above-ground biomass can recover to old-growth forest levels within 60-100 years. However, more than half of all carbon in tropical forests is stored below-ground, and our understanding of carbon storage in soils during tropical forest recovery is limited.Importantly, soil carbon accumulation does not necessarily reflect patterns in above-ground biomass carbon accrual during secondary forest succession, and factors related to past land use, species composition and soil characteristics may influence soil carbon storage during forest regrowth.Using tree census data and a measure of tree community shade tolerance (species-specific light response values), we assessed the relationship between soil organic carbon stocks and tree functional groups during secondary succession along a chronosequence of 40- to 120-year-old naturally regenerating secondary forest and old-growth tropical forest stands in Panama.While previous studies found no evidence for increasing soil C storage with secondary forest age, we found a strong relationship between tree functional composition and soil carbon stocks at 0-10cm depth, whereby carbon stocks increased with the relative influence of light-demanding tree species. Light demanding trees had higher leaf nitrogen but lower leaf density than shade-tolerant trees, suggesting that rapid decomposition of nutrient-rich plant material in forests with a higher proportion of light-demanding species results in greater accumulation of carbon in the surface layer of soils. Synthesis. We propose that soil carbon storage in secondary tropical forests is more strongly linked to tree functional composition than forest age, and that the persistence of long-lived pioneer trees could enhance soil carbon storage as forests age. Considering shifts in tree functional groups could improve estimates of carbon sequestration potential for climate change mitigation by tropical forest regrowth. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog.

The logic of recreation space governance in forest parks based on the theory of space production

Forest parks are among the most important reserves. Forest recreation reflects the time requirements for resource usage and economic coordination for sustainable development. Human activities in forest parks are a major force for continuing space production. However, with the rapid development of forest recreation, expanded spaces and excessive expectations make sustainable development a great challenge. Analyzing the spaces of forest recreation; making conclusions about the spatial features; and analyzing requests regarding multiple characters, multi-functions, and land usage are all done through the process of space production, which based on the “Three Dimensions.” According to the problems of space alienation occurring in forest recreation, this paper proposes that the logic of space governance should return to the nature of the Three Dimensions itself. “Space justice production” and “reconstruction of we” should also offer countermeasures and advice for building a classification mechanism for the rights, responsibilities, and interests of recreation spaces; establishing recreation space control zones and strategies; and promoting space expansion simulations and facility scale measurement. The construction of spatial relationships and forms of social, ecological, and natural justice is necessary to offer a new method of space production and consumption balance for natural reserves.

Forest degradation and biomass changes over forest area in Indonesia’s new capital city and surrounding area

Anthropogenic interventions in natural forests have resulted in deforestation and forest degradation. There is a reduction in the number of trees per unit area, which results in changes in forest biomass stocks. Deforestation and forest degradation are believed to contribute to increasing the atmosphere’s greenhouse gases. Satellite remote sensing has played an essential role in generating information about deforestation and forest degradation. This study aims to analyze forest degradation and biomass stock changes over forest area in Indonesia’s new capital city and surrounding area from 2010 to 2018. Spatial datasets from the Tropical Moist Forests project were used in the analysis and processed using Google Earth Engine. Changes in biomass were analyzed based on a biomass map that was produced using radar data. The results of this study clearly show that in the 2010-2018 period, there have been dynamics of forest cover changes in the new capital city of Indonesia and its surroundings, namely the occurrence of direct deforestation, deforestation after degradation, forest degradation, regrowth, and undisturbed forests. The rate of forest degradation was 34,216 ha yr-1 from 2010 to 2018. The highest rate of forest degradation occurred in 2015, along with the massive incidence of fires. The average aboveground biomass stock in the primary forest is 268 Mg ha-1, while 238 Mg ha-1 in the secondary forest. The loss of some trees resulted in a decrease forest biomass in 2018 by 6.7% of the forest biomass stock in 2010. Forest degradation events are caused mainly by logging and fires that generally occur in extreme drought conditions.