Regions Of Yemen Research Articles

Phytochemical analysis and in vitro investigation of wound healing, cytotoxicity, and inflammatory response in potentially active extracts of Anogeissus dhofarica

The traditional medicine plant Anogeissus dhofarica is only found in the Jabal Fartak region of Yemen and the Dhofar region of Oman. This plant has been used traditionally for medical purposes to treat wounds, skin tanning, and sores. People use it as an antiseptic, especially women. However, this plant has not been studied in great detail, and there is no scientific proof to back up its traditional uses of it. The goal of this study was to examine the biological properties and phytochemical analysis of various extracts made from A. dhofarica leaves. The powdered leaves of A. dhofarica were extracted using the solvents ethanol (A1), methanol (A3), acetone (A5), and ethyl acetate (A8), yielding concentrations of 3, 0.3, and 0.03 mg/ml, respectively. The total phenolic and flavonoid contents, as well as the active phytochemicals, were determined using standard methods. The proliferation potential and IC50 of human dermal fibroblasts were evaluated. Cytotoxicity, wound healing activity, and the inflammatory response to the extracts were all investigated. Our results revealed that the IC50 values for plant extracts A1, A3, A5, and A8 were 9.799 ± 0.07, 5.83 ± 0.9, 8.8 ± 0.12, and 3.98 ± 0.8 mg/ml, respectively. Moreover, the cytotoxic effect of plant extracts was observed at high concentrations (p <0.05). However, the lower concentration showed the least cytotoxic effect. For the inflammatory response, the secretion levels of IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α, IL-8, and IL-12p70 were upregulated, and IL-10 was downregulated significantly (p < 0.05) compared to the control. For wound healing activity, 0.3 and 0.03 mg/ml of (A8) extract and 0.03 mg/ml of (A3) and (A5) extracts showed complete closure of the scratch after 72 hours of treatment. In this study, we noticed that A. dhofarica plant extracts with a lower concentration are the most effective at healing wounds and have a minimal cytotoxic effect.

Assessment of Groundwater Resources in the Hard Basement Rocks of Yemen, Al Bayda City Case Study

The present study was carried out with the aim of assessing the availability of groundwater in a typical hard basement complex area in Yemen, the catchment area of Al-Bayda city catchment in the mountainous region of the country. The main objective of this study is to evaluate and quantify the groundwater resources available in this area. The available regional data on climate, topography, and geology as well as ASTER and Landsat imaginary data were collected, reviewed, and analyzed together with local hydrogeological studies and well inventories and then used to identify the general geohydrology of the catchment, characterize the local aquifer system, assess the groundwater situation and quantify the available groundwater in the study area. The results of this study show that the aquifer system accounts for only about 5 % of the entire catchment area and has a total thickness of 10 - 30 m. This aquifer has a small lateral extent and is interrupted by faults, dykes, and plutonic intrusions. Limited amounts of groundwater occur in isolated bodies along the main wadis at the base of the aquifer system. The groundwater level in these bodies has dropped by 19 m since 1983, on average by 0.5 m per year. Groundwater recharge for the current state is estimated at 1.95 million m3/year, which is only 3% of the total annual precipitation. The total amount of groundwater withdrawn is estimated at 2.2 million m3/year, which is 80% below the current (2023) total annual demand of around 11 million m3. The study underlines the need to implement an urgent action plan to improve groundwater recharge through water extraction techniques. The research results can be used for the improvement and development of water resources in this area in particular and in the Yemen region in general.

Estimation of Catha edulis (Vahl) Forssk. ex Endl. - antidiabetic drug interactions by using closed-loop Doluisio’s method

Context: Catha edulis (khat) is a prevalent plant in Yemen and other African regions. In Yemen and other countries, most people chew this plant, which may change the pharmacokinetics of many drugs, such as anti-diabetics (glibenclamide and metformin). Aims: To evaluate the effect of C. edulis presence in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) on the intestinal perfusion and bioavailability of metformin and glibenclamide and its effectiveness. Methods: The present study was conducted in situ using the closed-loop Doluisio’s method. Rat intestinal perfusion of a reference standard of each test drug alone was compared to the drug intestinal perfusion in the presence of C. edulis (three types of C. edulis agriculture in different regions of Yemen). The type of C. edulis that produced the most influence on the absorption of the drug reference was then re-investigated using the same in situ method against a pharmaceutical dosage form (tablets) of the drug. Results: The intestinal absorptions (perfusion) of reference standards of metformin and glibenclamide were decreased in the presence of C. edulis by 30.53-35.9% and 14.71-27.93%, respectively, while such decrease with pharmaceutical dosage form (tablets) of the two drugs was 24.24 and 19.77%, respectively. Conclusions: Based on the results reached from this study, the anti-diabetic bioavailability was significantly reduced in the presence of C. edulis, and this effect may affect the drug efficacy.

THE YEMENI ARCHITECTURE INFLUENCED THE CULTURE IN THE TOWER HOUSE IN BAB AL YEMEN, SANA’A

This paper study on the traditional tower house in Old City Sana’a as known as Bab al Yemen. It focusing how the local context with lifestyle and culture determine the traditional architecture and design in Bab al Yemen and different regions of Yemen and Arab regions, according to nature, climatic conditions, culture, traditional values, and native knowledge. Overview for architecture and design during the twentieth century, civilisation and the Islam perspective in the Arab region, and selected the traditional tower house in Yemen as a case study. In addition to the analysis the traditional tower house form and layout in Sana’a city, the design and elements of the house; spatial organization, construction systems and building materials, and window openings included ornaments patterns. The study summarises the aspects of lifestyle and culture in the traditional house as an ancient traditional knowledge for character of architecture and design. In conclusion, the traditional tower house in Bab al Yemen, designed according to the local context and indigenous traditional knowledge, have influenced traditional tower house architecture; the house elements and design satisfies the lifestyle and culture aspects. This includes design aspects related to the house layout, the application of traditional design, the traditional building material, the Islamic values in house design, the exterior appearance of the house and lifestyle aspect. heritage and indigenous traditional knowledge toward sustainable architecture.

Implicit Civil Society and Reform in Yemen: Lessons from the Twentieth Century

The fact that cross-border forms of civic activism in Arab countries during the “Arab Spring” are similar is commonly attributed to their socio-cultural commonalities, which provide markers of their identities. The manifestation of this interaction, in the author's view, is the phenomenon of an implicit civil society that draws on the hidden springs of Islamic culture, but that functions in a completely different way. The author's attempt to describe it in this article using the example of Yemen includes three aspects: as an active participant in the watershed events of contemporary Yemeni social history; as a centre of civic strategies that fundamentally differentiate it from religious and political groupings; and as a mechanism for adapting the indigenous cultural identity of a society to new ideological environment. The article spans the period from its emergence at an early stage of modernisation in a deeply archaic society united under British colonial rule in the first third of the twentieth century, to its culmination in the early twenty-first century. The article is based on publications examining relevant cases from different historical and cultural regions of Yemen. Early examples include the “Nadi al-Islah al-Arabi al-Islami” Club in Aden and the Irshadist Movement in Hadramaut extremely active at the turn of 1930s when the national intelligentsia started to reach prominence and managed to convert reformist narrative from the religious frames to the public discourse. They have elaborated the number of tools inherent also to the modern implicit civil society performances like educational work through clubs, preference to dialog between rivals, high attention to maintaining the continuity of cultural traditions, etc. The recent diversity of this phenomenon is illustrated by the experience of the “Shabab al-Mumin” Club, founded in the mid-1990s in the Saada Governorate of northern Yemen, as well as the spontaneous urban youth committees that emerged during the 2011 uprising, which channelled a huge wave of social activism into peaceful activity. The aim of the article is to explore the phenomenon of implicit civil society using a descriptive method. The practical significance of the proposed approach lies in a better understanding of the reasons for the heightened permeability of the boundaries between civic and political activism so characteristic of such societies.

Learned Lessons from Traditional Architecture in Yemen -Towards Sustainable Architecture

This paper explores the Learned Lessons from traditional Yemeni Architecture Towards Sustainable Architecture. It highlights how the local context influences the traditional architecture in Sanaa city and different regions of Yemen and Arab regions, according to nature, climatic conditions, culture, traditional values, and indigenous knowledge. Overview for sustainability during the twentieth century, sustainability and the Islam perspective in the Arab region, and selected the traditional architecture in Yemen as a case study. In addition to the analysis analyzed the city's urban form and the traditional house in Sana’a city, the design and elements of the house; spatial organization, construction systems and building materials, and window openings. Ornaments and sewerage systems. The study summarizes the aspects of sustainability in the traditional house in different regions in Yemen as an indigenous traditional knowledge for sustainable architecture. In conclusion, the traditional houses in the house in Yemen, designed according to the local context and indigenous traditional knowledge, have influenced traditional Yemeni architecture; the house elements and design fulfills sustainable requirements and positively impact the city's environmental, economic, and social aspects. Furthermore, it is considered a learned lesson from traditional architectural heritage and indigenous traditional knowledge toward sustainable architecture.

AN APPROACH FOR PRESERVING OTTOMAN CULTURAL HERITAGE UNDER THREAT IN YEMEN: A CASE STUDY " THE OLD CITY OF SANA'A"

Cultural heritage is one of the human development aspects throughout the historical ages. Yemen is one of the wealthiest regions with cultural heritages in the Middle East, due to its important geographical location linking India, China, Africa, and the Mediterranean countries. Sana'a developed through successive Islamic eras, one of the most important of them was during Ottoman period. During their presence in Yemen, Ottomans were interested in constructing different types of buildings and bringing about a great civilizational and architectural renaissance in various regions of Yemen, especially in the city of Sana'a. However, cultural heritage in Sana'a was badly damaged during the Yemeni conflict, including Ottoman heritage. This study proposes an approach for preserving the building's cultural heritage under threat. This approach was based on the European Standard (EN 16096:2012 (E)), Conservation of cultural property - Condition survey and report of building’s cultural heritage. The methodology used will help preserve the cultural heritage in Sana'a by assessing the damage caused by the war in Sana'a, and appropriate proposals were made. This study considered a group of Ottoman structures in the old city of Sana'a as a case study. It shows the war-affected historical sites in all Yemeni cities. During the period of Ottoman rule in Yemen, various facilities were built in most regions of Yemen, most of which were concentrated in the old city of Sana'a. Ottoman establishments were counted in the old city of Sana'a, where there were twenty-eight of them, twenty-one installations still in existence, and seven destroyed and no longer existing.

The moderating role of supplier relationship on the effect of postponement on supply chain resilience under different levels of environmental uncertainty

ABSTRACT The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between postponement and supply chain resilience (SCR), as well as to explore the separate and combined moderating effects of supplier relationship (SR) and environmental uncertainty (EU) on that relationship. Based on the survey data from 261 manufacturing SMEs in the Sana’a and Taiz regions in Yemen, the proposed relationships in the research model were tested. Our empirical results reveal that postponement positively and significantly affects SCR. Furthermore, SR strengthens the postponement–SCR relationship under a lower level of EU. The results of this paper provide useful insights for managers and decision-makers of SMEs, who are expected to show a greater interest in building long-term relationships with suppliers. This has implications that by building a strong SR, SMEs are expected to be able to leverage the full potential of postponement to enhance SCR at a low level of EU.

Competitor orientation and SME performance in competitive environments: the moderating effect of marketing ethics

Purpose Although competitor orientation (CO) has been given great attention, its link to firm performance (FP) is still unclear. The reason behind this may be attributed to the fact that the CO–FP relationship depends on several contingencies. The purpose of this paper is to simultaneously explore the separate and combined moderating effects of marketing ethics (ME) and competitive intensity (CI) in the CO–FP relationship. Design/methodology/approach The participants in this study were managers or owners from 289 manufacturing SMEs located in two regions in Yemen (i.e. Sana’a and Taiz). Hierarchical regression analysis using PROCESS Macro V. 3.5 in SPSS was performed to analyze the data collected. Findings The obtained results reveal that ME in fact positively moderates the CO–FP relationship and, importantly, this effect is not influenced by CI. Practical implications The findings of this paper provide advantageous insights for managers and decision-makers for SMEs as it is expected that they demonstrate a greater commitment to the practice of ME in their firms. This has implications that with the practice of ME, it is expected that SMEs will be able to use the full potential of CO to improve their performance at a low level of CI. Originality/value This study contributes to widening the studies on CO, ME, CI and SMEs in a different context. In addition, it adds to the knowledge by exploring the combined moderating influence of internal (e.g. ME) and external factors (e.g. CI) when examining the CO–FP relationship.

Physicochemical Properties Evaluation for Some Yemeni Honeys

In this study the quality properties of Yemeni honeys were investigated. Two types of honey, monofloral (Sidr) and multi-flora honey originated from three different regions in Yemen (Hadramout, Dhamar and Amran governorates), were included in this study. Honey samples were collected and analyzed to determine their physicochemical properties such as (moisture content, total soluble solid (TSS), pH, free acidity, reducing sugars, sucrose, vitamin (C), electrical conductivity (EC), refractive index, water insoluble matter (WIM) and density) and to determine effect of geographical area and botanical source on the physicochemical properties of honey. The results showed that moisture content (18.63%±1.39), total soluble solid (TSS) content (79.58±1.42°Brix), pH (4.26±1.17), free acidity (17.16±5.56 meq/kg honey), reducing sugars (63.86%±3.50), sucrose content was (4.4%±1.12), total sugar (68.27%±3.55), vitamin C (0.65±0.226 mg/100g), the electrical conductivity (EC) (731.08±273.87μS/cm), refractive index (1.4958±0.0038), while water insoluble matter (WIM) was (0.092%±0.033) and the density was (1.3871±0.035 g/cm³). Results obtained from this study showed that honey samples coincide with those specified by Yemeni standard organization (YSMO) and Arabian Gulf standard organization (GSO). Botanical source affected on the pH, sucrose content and the electrical conductivity (EC) values of honey, which was higher in Sidr honey than multi floral honey samples. The geographical area caused a variation in the moisture, free acidity and vitamin C content of honey, while other physicochemical properties for honey had a negligible variation between honey from the different regions and botanical sources.

The Clinical Phenotypes of Cutaneous Leishmaniasis in Central and Southwest Regions of Yemen.

Cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) is endemic in Yemen. CL displays a spectrum of typical and atypical morphologies yet understudied in the central and southwest regions of Yemen. To identify the typical and atypical clinical phenotypes of CL in the central and southwest regions of Yemen. A survey of 145 patients who visited Prof. Al-Qubati Clinic in Taiz between 2010 and 2015, was conducted. Children and residents of the rural areas were at high risk of exposure to the insect vector. The typical phenotype was single (67%), facial (58%) and ulcerated nodule (35%). Other usual phenotypes were small ulcers (21.4%) and non-ulcerative papules and nodules (21%). Unusual phenotypes constituted 12% of the cohort and included psoriasiform, eczematous, erysipeloid, lupoid, verrucous, large ulcerative, leishmania recidivens, satellite, granulomatous infiltrative and hyperkeratotic plaques. Mucous membrane involvement was evident in 10.6% and was also polymorphic. CL has many morphologic patterns in central and southwest regions of Yemen, some are clinically deceptive.

Inscription dédicatoire d’un roi de Kaminahū, Arabie du Sud

The royal inscription published here is added to the small corpus of inscriptions from the city-state of Kaminahū (the modern site of Kamna in the Jawf region of Yemen). The author’s name, Dhamarkarib Riyām son of Ilīsamiʿ, king of Kaninahū, appears in other inscriptions, and it is probably the same ruler. This dedicatory inscription, commemorating the construction of a sanctuary, evokes the alliance (the “brotherhood”) with Sumhūʿalī, king of Shebaʾ, and his people. Based on this synchronism and on palaeography, we propose to date this king of Kaminahū to around the fifth century BCE, shortly before the period when several city-states situated in the Jawf region seem to lose their independence. The text has some interesting terms, including rṣf, attested in several Minaean inscriptions, which refers to a masonry building, probably a sanctuary of a particular type. This publication has provided an opportunity to re-examine a royal confession inscription whose author is probably the same king (the inscription Fr-Ṣanʿāʾ 5).

Seismicity in Yemen and the Gulf of Aden in a geological context

Seismicity in Yemen and the Gulf of Aden in a geological context. The study presents geologic investigation of Yemen and the Gulf of Aden with a special focus on geophysical, seismic, tectonic and topographic mapping performed by the integrated approach of QGIS and GMT scripting. Cartographic visualization is crucial in geologic analysis, data processing and prognosis of mineral resource prospects. The region of Yemen and Gulf of Aden was formed as a result of Arabian and African plates movements and still tectonically active. Besides, the Gulf of Aden contains mineral resources of hydrocarbons which makes this region actual for investigation. The IRIS database on earthquakes was used for visualization of the magnitude of submarine earthquakes in the Gulf of Aden for the period of 2007-2020. The paper presents 6 new thematic maps for the region of Yemen and Gulf of Aden. The research presented an analysis of correlation between the geological, topographic and geophysical settings. Through combined approach of cartographic high-resolution data visualization and geologic analysis, this paper contributed to the regional geological studies of Yemen, Gulf of Aden and the Middle East.

Seismicity in Yemen and the Gulf of Aden in a geological context.

The study presents geologic investigation of Yemen and the Gulf of Aden with a special focus on geophysical, seismic, tectonic and topographic mapping performed by the integrated approach of QGIS and GMT scripting. Cartographic visualization is crucial in geologic analysis, data processing and prognosis of mineral resource prospects. The region of Yemen and Gulf of Aden was formed as a result of Arabian and African plates movements and still tectonically active. Besides, the Gulf of Aden contains mineral resources of hydrocarbons which makes this region actual for investigation. The IRIS database on earthquakes was used for visualization of the magnitude of submarine earthquakes in the Gulf of Aden for the period of 2007-2020. The paper presents 6 new thematic maps for the region of Yemen and Gulf of Aden. The research presented an analysis of correlation between the geological, topographic and geophysical settings. Through combined approach of cartographic high-resolution data visualization and geologic analysis, this paper contributed to the regional geological studies of Yemen, Gulf of Aden and the Middle East.

English

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) is a leading cause of liver disease and a possible worldwide source of severe morbidity and mortality. The current standard therapy using interferons or antiviral agents is not successful in all cases and is associated with severe side effects. Consequently, the development of new medicines for the treatment of HBV is still relevant. This experimental study was therefore performed to assess the anti-hepatitis B virus (HBV) potential of 10 endemic medicinal plants from Socotra Island which represents a distinctive region of Yemen. Socotra Island is renowned for its biodiversity with significant flora with globally important plants. The methanolic extracts of the selected plants were first assessed for cytotoxicity on HepG2.2.15 cells and cytotoxicity concentration (CC50) values were resolved. The methanolic extracts of the plants were additionally examined on HepG2.2.15 cells for anti-HBV potential by examining the inhibition of HBsAg and HBeAg production in the culture supernatants, and calculating their half-maximum inhibitory concentration (IC50) and therapeutic index (TI) values. Out of ten plants only five plants exhibit inhibition of HBsAg production in a dose and time dependent manner. These five plants are Acacia pennivenia, Boswellia discorea, B. socotrana, Hypoestes pubescens and Dracaena cinnabari with IC50 values of 21.15, 24.51, 118.94, 17.65, 20.93 μg/mL, respectively. Moreover, the presence of terpenoids, tannins, alkaloids and flavonoids that could contribute to antiviral efficacy was validated with a qualitative phytochemical study of active extracts. Key words: Antiviral, Hepatitis B, medicinal plants; Socotra, Yemen.

Evaluation the Performance of Several Gridded Precipitation Products over the Highland Region of Yemen for Water Resources Management

Management of water resources under climate change is one of the most challenging tasks in many arid and semiarid regions. A major challenge in countries, such as Yemen, is the lack of sufficient and long-term climate data required to drive hydrological models for better management of water resources. In this study, we evaluated the accuracy of accessible satellite and reanalysis-based precipitation products against observed data from Al Mahwit governorate (highland region, Yemen) during 1998–2007. Here, we evaluated the accuracy of the Climate Hazards Group Infrared Precipitation with Station (CHIRPS) data, National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP) Climate Forecast System Reanalysis (CFSR), Precipitation Estimation from Remotely Sensed Information Using Artificial Neural Networks-Climate Data Record (PERSIANN-CDR), Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM 3B42), Unified Gauge-Based Analysis of Global Daily Precipitation (CPC), and European Atmospheric Reanalysis (ERA-5). The evaluation was performed on daily, monthly, and annual time steps by directly comparing the data from each single station with the data from the nearest grid box for each product. At a daily timescale, CHIRPS captures the daily rainfall characteristics best, such as the number of wet days, with average deviation from wet durations around 11.53%. TRMM 3B42 is the second-best performing product for a daily estimate with an average deviation of around 34.7%. However, CFSR (85.3%) and PERSIANN-CDR (103%) and ERA-5 (−81.13%) show an overestimation and underestimation of wet days and do not reflect rainfall variability of the study area. Moreover, CHIRPS is the most accurate gridded product on a monthly basis with high correlation and lower bias. The average monthly correlation between the observed and CHIRPS, TRMM 3B42, PERSIANN-CDR, CPC, ERA-5, and CFSR is 0.78, 0.56, 0.53, 0.15, 0.20, and 0.51, respectively. The average monthly bias is −2.9, −5.25, 7.35, −25.29, −24.96, and 16.68 mm for CHIRPS, TRMM 3B42, PERSIANN-CDR, CPC, ERA-5, and CFSR, respectively. CHIRPS displays the spatial distribution of annual rainfall pattern well with percent bias (Pbias) of around −8.68% at the five validation points, whereas TRMM 3B42, PERSIANN-CDR, and CFSR show a deviation of greater than 15.30, 22.90, and 66.21%, respectively. CPC and ERA-5 show Pbias of about −88.6% from observed data. Overall, in absence of better data, CHIRPS data can be used for hydrological and climate change studies on the highland region of Yemen where precipitation is often episodical and measurement records are spatially and temporally limited.

Study on system fairness dimensions and tax compliance in the Middle East context

People’s perceptions of a fair tax administration system have garnered growing interest as a decisive ingredient that can install compliance behavior among taxpayers. The tax that taxpayers wish to evade is determined by their perceptions of the various robust dimensions of fairness (i.e., general fairness, preferred tax rate structure, exchange with the government, special provisions, and self-interest). Such an important matter, like tax fairness, has been overlooked in the extant literature, especially in the Middle East context, although tax administrations still suffer from low and unsatisfactory rates of compliance. This paper aims to empirically examine the influence of fairness perceptions of the income tax system on compliance behavior of taxpayers in Yemen. The study used a survey questionnaire administered to 400 individual taxpayers in Hadhramout, one of the most prosperous business regions in Yemen. Based on the PLS-SEM analysis tool, the study found that general system fairness, preferred tax rate, exchange with the government, and the extent of self-interest are significantly related to income tax compliance, while special provisions do not affect compliance decisions. The results of the study can alert the tax authority and policymakers to consider the non-pecuniary factors, other than the measures of the coercion. Establishing a fair tax system is probably one of the most successful approaches to boost compliance among taxpayers, thus yielding more tax revenue and diminishing the administrative cost for the tax authority.

The Economic Value of Irrigation Water in Wadi Zabid, Tihama Plain, Yemen

This study used crop budgets to assess the impact of declining groundwater levels on the economic value of irrigation water in the Wadi Zabid region of Yemen. The study found that returns to land and water were highly sensitive to changes in groundwater depths over time and the free availability of spate water for irrigation. Crops differed in the amounts of irrigation water applied and in their returns to land and water. Banana had the highest irrigation requirement, but also delivered the highest return to land. Banana’s return to water was greater than that of date palm and feed sorghum, but lower than that of mango and food sorghum.

II. Abdülhamid Döneminde Yemen Zeydîlerinin Osmanlı Hilâfetine Bakışı

XIX. yüzyıldan itibaren Batılı devletlerin Osmanlı toprakları üzerindeki işgal hareketleri gittikçe arttı. Sultan II. Abdülhamid, Müslüman toplumlar arasında halifelik iddiasıyla ayrılıkçı hareketlerin başlaması tehlikesine karşı sürekli tetikte olmak durumunda kaldı. Kendilerini “halife” olarak isimlendiren ve Hz. Muhammed’in soyundan geldiklerini ifade eden Zeydî imamlar, daha önce Yemen’in iç bölgelerini kendi kontrolleri altında tutmaktaydı. Osmanlı Devleti 1872’de gerçekleştirdiği önemli bir harekât sonrasında Yemen hâkimiyetini iç kesimleri de kapsayacak şekilde genişletti. Zeydî imamlar yeni gelişmelerden oldukça rahatsızlık duydular. Özellikle bir takım dinî gerekçeler gösterip, Tanzimat’ın ilanı ile birlikte gayrimüslimlere verilen hakların artırılmasını öne sürerek yönetime karşı sık sık isyan etmeye başladılar. İmam Yahya ile Osmanlı yönetimi arasında gerçekleşen uzlaşma çabaları II. Abdülhamid’in tahttan indirilmesi ile sonuçsuz kaldı.

AN UNDERSTANDING OF FGM (FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION): WOMEN OF THE ‘BOHRA COMMUNITY’ WHO ARE CIRCUMCISED AND IT’S SOCIO-SEXUAL EFFECTS

The strive for women’s emancipation and equal rights recently emerged as a topic of major concern within the socio-cultural arena of developing countries, such as Pakistan. Lack of awareness and cultural conditioning fosters an unsafe environment towards young girls and women. They are marginalized to challenges of honour killing, forced marriages and ‘Female Genital Mutilation (FGM)’. The latter, remains a widely unknown and overlooked issue within Pakistani society. This paper critically analyzes FGM/C as a physically invasive procedure practiced amongst women, that belong to a tight-knit community of “Dawoodi Bohra Muslims”, in Pakistan. They are considered a sub-sect of Shi’ite Muslims whose roots are thought to be tracked back to regions of Yemen or Egypt, it is also suggested that some of their ancestors might have belonged to African origins. An insider versus outsider approach will explore how FGM/C is not a normalized practice in outsider communities and is seen as a clear violation of human rights by the United Nations. Comparative investigation includes surface revision of quantitative and qualitative data to understand social, psychological and sexual after-effects. Furthermore, collection of primary source surveys and semi-structured interviews enunciate reasons as to why the community practices this ritual. To better tackle themes of gender discrimination, it is imperative to pursue in-depth studies of the religious removal or alteration of clitoris and/or labia from the female anatomy and how it curbs sexual pleasure of women. This topic scrutinizes that a mixed methodology approach allows tolerant comprehension of female circumcision, yet does not nullify acknowledgment of its patriarchal roots and violent nature. Lastly, it will emphasize that cultural male domination can control and morph a woman’s sexual identity. This research topic could contribute towards humanitarian information and approaches which could improve the situation of women that undergo FGM/C.