Reflex Activity Research Articles

Startle-triggered responses indicate reticulospinal drive is larger for voluntary shoulder versus finger movements

Recent primate studies have implicated a substantial role of reticulospinal pathways in the production of various voluntary movements. A novel way to assess the relative reticulospinal contributions in humans is through the use of a “StartReact” paradigm where a startling acoustic stimulus (SAS) is presented during a simple reaction time (RT) task. The StartReact response is characterized by short-latency triggering of a prepared response, which is attributed to increased reticulospinal drive associated with startle reflex activation. The current study used a StartReact protocol to examine differences in reticulospinal contributions between proximal and distal effectors by examining EMG onset latencies in lateral deltoid and first dorsal interosseous during bilateral shoulder or finger abduction. The magnitude of the StartReact effect, and thus relative reticulospinal drive, was quantified as the difference in RT between startle trials in which startle-reflex related EMG activation in the sternocleidomastoid (SCM) was present (SCM +) versus absent (SCM −). A significantly larger StartReact effect was observed for bilateral shoulder abduction versus bimanual finger abduction and a higher incidence of SCM + trials occurred in the proximal task. Additionally, both startle reflex and response-related EMG measures were larger on SCM + trials for the shoulder versus finger task. These results provide compelling novel evidence for increased reticulospinal activation in bilateral proximal upper-limb movements.

Nurse researcher identity and reflexivity in interpretive phenomenological analysis: a personal narrative.

Nurses have a significant part to play in research. However, novice nurse researchers face difficulties in transitioning into research roles. These difficulties can affect their sense of identity, their clarity of role and the research process. To highlight how reflexive processes enable novice nurse researchers to develop self-awareness, overcome tensions and navigate their dual identities as they transition into researchers. Participating in reflexive activities when conducting research provides the researcher with a biography of the experience. It also encourages the examination of thoughts and feelings that can inform and enhance the quality of the research, as well as the confidence of the researcher. Transitioning from nurse to researcher can be complex and present professional and ethical dilemmas, creating conflict when nurses adopt and adjust to the new role. Reflexivity offers opportunities to identify and examine these dilemmas and tensions, as well as support for nurses as they move into research roles. Nurses hold onto their professional identities as they transition into research, viewing the researcher identity as complementary to their initial clinical professional identity. This dual-professional identity connects healthcare and research, but also creates challenges for nurses, so should be given more attention. More research is needed to examine the path from nurse to researcher and why nurses remain committed to their professional nurse identity. As nurse researchers are becoming commonplace in healthcare, research education programmes need to include strategies to help novice nurse researchers navigate the tensions between their nurse and researcher identities.

The role of anticipatory and reflexive compensatory muscle activation in catching errors under load uncertainty.

This experiment investigated the role of anticipatory and reflexive compensatory neuromotor control in catching errors occurring under load uncertainty. Participants performed 64 trials of a one-handed ball catching task using visually identical balls of four different weights without knowing the weight of the ball on each trial. Anticipatory and reflexive compensatory muscle activation were recorded in five muscles (anterior deltoid, biceps brachii, wrist flexors group, triceps brachii, lumbar erector spinae) using the EMG integral. In each muscle, the anticipatory and reflexive compensatory muscle activation were compared between successful catches and catching errors for the lightest ball and the heaviest ball. Anticipatory muscle activation was not implicated in errors made with the lightest ball. However, reflexive compensatory muscle activation in the anterior deltoid, biceps brachii, and wrist flexors were implicated in errors made with the lightest ball. Specifically, catching errors with the lightest ball were characterized by elevated reflexive compensatory muscle activation. In the case of the heaviest ball, both anticipatory (anterior deltoid, wrist flexors) and reflexive compensatory muscle activation (anterior deltoid, biceps brachii, wrist flexors) were implicated in catching errors. That is, catching errors with the heaviest ball were characterized by lower anticipatory and reflexive compensatory muscle activation. Results are considered in the context of the likely influence of limb compliance in catching under load uncertainty.

Abstract 5509: The PI3K inhibitor Paxalisib combines synergistically with the MEK inhibitor Mirdametinib to target atypical teratoid/rhabdoid tumors

Abstract Atypical teratoid/rhabdoid tumors (AT/RT) are aggressive pediatric brain tumors and the most common malignant brain tumors of infancy. The four-year event-free survival rate is only 37%. For patients with relapsed AT/RT there are limited treatment options, but precision therapies may help improve survival for patients with this deadly disease. We have previously identified strong activation of the PI3K-AKT-mTOR (mTOR) signaling pathways in AT/RT. Paxalisib is a highly brain-penetrant PI3K inhibitor acting upstream of mTOR. We find that Paxalisib slows tumor growth in orthotopic xenograft models of AT/RT and extends median survival from 40 to 54 days (p=0.001, log-rank test). RNASeq after mTOR pathway inhibition identifies reflexive activation of the RAS-RAF-MEK-ERK (MAPK) pathway as a possible mechanism of therapy resistance (KEGG pathway analysis). The RAS-RAF-MEK-ERK (MAPK) pathway plays a pivotal role in regulating cell growth and survival and activation of the pathway contributes to the aggressive growth of numerous cancers. Mirdametinib is a small, allosteric MEK inhibitor currently used in clinical trials for both pediatric low- and high-grade gliomas (PD0325901). We find that dual inhibition of both the mTOR and MAPK pathways by Paxalisib and Mirdametinib synergize to reduce AT/RT growth and viability (Bliss synergy score 16.77). Paxalisib also combines with Mirdametinib to induce high levels of apoptosis and cell senescence (as determined by western blot: cPARP, pRB, P21, P16). Naïve treatments in mice bearing AT/RT orthotopic tumors suggests the combination therapy decrease mTOR and MAPK pathway activation (as determined by western blot). These data support the use of Paxalisib and Mirdametinib combination therapy as a promising novel combination therapy to treat relapsed AT/RT. Citation Format: Kristen J. Malebranche, Tyler Findlay, Anupa Geethadevi, Charles Eberhart, Eric Raabe, Jeffrey Rubens. The PI3K inhibitor Paxalisib combines synergistically with the MEK inhibitor Mirdametinib to target atypical teratoid/rhabdoid tumors. [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the American Association for Cancer Research Annual Meeting 2023; Part 1 (Regular and Invited Abstracts); 2023 Apr 14-19; Orlando, FL. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2023;83(7_Suppl):Abstract nr 5509.

A Preliminary Study on Sympathetic Skin Response in Acute Ischemic Cerebrovascular Disease.

The study aims to identify the characteristics of SSR in patients with AICVD and their correlation with clinical presentations. SSR of the upper limbs, the National Institute of Health stroke scale (NIHSS), the Barthel index (BI), the Essen stroke risk score (ESRS), and imaging examinations, was evaluated in 30 healthy subjects and 66 patients with AICVD. All results were recorded and analyzed via Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS 22.0) software. t-test and Spearman rank correlation were used. Compared to the control group, SSR of upper limbs in patients with AICVD showed prolonged latency, reduced amplitude, and disappeared waveform (p=0.000, p=0.015, p=0.004), No statistically significant difference was observed between the affected side and the healthy side (p=0.068, p=0.661). In the case group, the higher the abnormal rate of SSR, the more severe the neurological impairment (NIHSS and ADL scores) and the worse the long-term prognosis. Specific results are as follows: Firstly, the total abnormality rate of SSR, prolonged SSR latency were positively related to the NIHSS, also the ESRS (r=0.347, p=0.004; r=0.437, p<0.001), (r=0.371, p=0.005; r=0.433, p=0.001), the reduced amplitude was positively related to the NIHSS (r=0.341, p=0.012) while the disappeared waveform was positively related to the ESRS (r=0.299, p=0.015); Secondly, the total abnormality rate of SSR, prolonged SSR latency and reduced amplitude were negatively related to the BI (r=-0.346, p=0.004) (r=-0.426, p=0.001) (r=-0.316, p=0.020). There may be inhibition of sympathetic reflex activity in patients with AICVD, SSR abnormality rate in patients with AICVD may be correlated with the degree of neurological impairment and long-term prognosis.

Individual characteristics of the students high educational institutions not profiled in the physical culture in the swim lessons

In given article considered problem of need to take into account the individual characteristics of students when learning basic swimming skills. A number of issues related to the manifestation of coordination tendencies of a person in the process of formation of special swimming abilities and skills are highlighted. On the basis of the phenomena investigated in the course of the experiment, related to the unconditional-reflex manifestation of human neuromotorism, a number of positions important for the educational and educational process in the initial teaching of swimming were formed. The article proves that students who cannot swim have a coordination-motor tendency, which has individual features that are expressed in the performance of various movements of the lower limbs, which can be divided according to the way of creating a holding force on the surface of the water: oscillating wave-like movements and pushing movements. The data we obtained confirm that human swimming-motor activity is influenced by the unconditioned reflex activity of the central nervous system, and the indicator of swimming-coordination tendency is an informative feature of the conservative neuromotility of an individual, has detection parameters and can serve as a criterion for differentiating students who cannot swim into educational groups in during the initial stage of learning to swim. This article confirmed that the education process of basic swimming skills is influenced by the conservative heredity of the individual. The difference in the average evaluation indicators in groupes according to the results of control tests indicates the effectiveness, and therefore the need to use a differentiated approach in the process of initial swimming training and coordination features as a criterion for the distribution of study groups of students.

Can local vibration alter the contribution of persistent inward currents to human motoneuron firing?

The response of spinal motoneurons to synaptic input greatly depends on the activation of persistent inward currents (PICs), which in turn are enhanced by the neuromodulators serotonin and noradrenaline. Local vibration (LV) induces excitatory Ia input onto motoneurons and may alter neuromodulatory inputs. Therefore, we investigated whether LV influences the contribution of PICs to motoneuron firing. This was assessed in voluntary contractions with concurrent, ongoing LV, as well as after a bout of prolonged LV. High-density surface electromyograms (HD-EMG) of the tibialis anterior were recorded with a 64-electrode matrix. Twenty males performed isometric, triangular, dorsiflexion contractions to 20% and 50% of maximal torque at baseline, during LV of the tibialis anterior muscle, and after 30-min of LV. HD-EMG signals were decomposed, and motor units tracked across time points to estimate PICs through a paired motor unit analysis, which quantifies motor unit recruitment-derecruitment hysteresis (ΔF). During ongoing LV, ΔF was lower for both 20% and 50% ramps. Although significant changes in ΔF were not observed after prolonged LV, a differential effect across the motoneuron pool was observed. This study demonstrates that PICs can be non-pharmacologically modulated by LV. Given that LV leads to reflexive motor unit activation, it is postulated that lower PIC contribution to motoneuron firing during ongoing LV results from decreased neuromodulatory inputs associated with lower descending corticospinal drive. A differential effect in motoneurons of different recruitment thresholds after prolonged LV is provocative, challenging the interpretation of previous observations and motivating future investigations. KEY POINTS: Neuromodulatory inputs from the brainstem influence motoneuron intrinsic excitability through activation of persistent inward currents (PICs). PICs make motoneurons more responsive to excitatory input. We demonstrate that vibration applied on the muscle modulates the contribution of PICs to motoneuron firing, as observed through analysis of the firing of single motor units. The effects of PICs on motoneuron firing were lower when vibration was concurrently applied during voluntary ramp contractions, likely due to lower levels of neuromodulation. Additionally, prolonged exposure to vibration led to differential effects of lower- vs. higher-threshold motor units on PICs, with lower-threshold motor units tending to present an increased and higher-threshold motor units a decreased contribution of PICs to motoneuron firing. These results demonstrate that muscle vibration has the potential to influence the effects of neuromodulation on motoneuron firing. The potential of using vibration as a non-pharmacological neuromodulatory intervention should be further investigated.

Building a virtual transnational space for initial teacher education with Australian and German students

ABSTRACT Despite the global trend of growing diversity in student enrolment, most teacher education programmes remain inward-looking, oriented to national core standards and resist academic calls for internationalisation. While we agree that internationalisation at home is possible under certain circumstances, we put forward the argument that dialogic contact between student teachers in different national contexts has the potential to foster teacher education students’ intercultural competence and offer opportunities for professional development that go beyond those offered by traditional programmes. This paper reports on the creation of a virtual transnational ‘third place’ for teacher education students based in Hamburg and Sydney, built around the mutual analysis of their respective visual linguistic biographies. We will show that such a transnational space and reflexive activity enhances student teachers’ awareness of what it means to be and become a multilingual subject in other parts of the world, thus promoting self-awareness and the ability to decentre. Additionally, we claim that these activities have the potential to enhance teacher education students’ attitudes towards the implementation of multilingual pedagogies.

Unexpected running perturbations: Reliability and validity of a treadmill running protocol with analysis of provoked reflex activity in the lower extremities.

Balance is vital for human health and experiments have been conducted to measure the mechanisms of postural control, for example studying reflex responses to simulated perturbations. Such studies are frequent in walking but less common in running, and an understanding of reflex responses to trip-like disturbances could enhance our understanding of human gait and improve approaches to training and rehabilitation. Therefore, the primary aim of this study was to investigate the technical validity and reliability of a treadmill running protocol with perturbations. A further exploratory aim was to evaluate the associated neuromuscular reflex responses to the perturbations, in the lower limbs. Twelve healthy participants completed a running protocol (9 km/h) test-retest (2 weeks apart), whereby 30 unilateral perturbations were executed via the treadmill belts (presets:2.0 m/s amplitude;150 ms delay (post-heel contact);100ms duration). Validity of the perturbations was assessed via mean ± SD comparison, percentage error calculation between the preset and recorded perturbation characteristics (PE%), and coefficient of variation (CV%). Test-retest reliability (TRV%) and Bland-Altman analysis (BLA; bias ± 1.96 * SD) was calculated for reliability. To measure reflex activity, electromyography (EMG) was applied in both legs. EMG amplitudes (root mean square normalized to unperturbed strides) and latencies [ms] were analysed descriptively. Left-side perturbation amplitude was 1.9 ± 0.1 m/s, delay 105 ± 2 ms, and duration 78 ± 1 ms. Right-side perturbation amplitude was 1.9 ± 0.1 m/s, delay 118 ± 2 ms, duration 78 ± 1 ms. PE% ranged from 5-30% for the recorded perturbations. CV% of the perturbations ranged from 19.5-76.8%. TRV% for the perturbations was 6.4-16.6%. BLA for the left was amplitude: 0.0 ± 0.3m/s, delay: 0 ± 17 ms, duration: 2 ± 13 ms, and for the right was amplitude: 0.1 ± 0.7, delay: 4 ± 40 ms, duration: 1 ± 35 ms. EMG amplitudes ranged from 175 ± 141%-454 ± 359% in both limbs. Latencies were 109 ± 12-116 ± 23 ms in the tibialis anterior, and 128 ± 49-157 ± 20 ms in the biceps femoris. Generally, this study indicated sufficient validity and reliability of the current setup considering the technical challenges and limitations, although the reliability of the right-sided perturbations could be questioned. The protocol provoked reflex responses in the lower extremities, especially in the leading leg. Acute neuromusculoskeletal adjustments to the perturbations could be studied and compared in clinical and healthy running populations, and the protocol could be utilised to monitor chronic adaptations to interventions over time.

Cultivating a Digital Promise: Promoting Reflective and Reflexive Activities to Enhance Self-Directed Learning for the 21st Century

Self-directed learning skills are known to influence successful learning outcomes in a higher education environment. Moreover, first year students entering higher education lack self-directed learning skills, as these are not always developed at school level. A digital promise tool was used for a first-year student cohort to reflect on their personal learning experiences and behaviour over a period of two semesters. The researchers used the augmented community of inquiry as the theoretical framework in this study, focusing on the student learning presence. Two cycles of data were collected using student reflective and reflexive responses. The first cycle included developing a digital promise, where students reflected on their typical learning behaviour and commitments during their journey. After this cycle, opportunities were given for students to adjust their digital promise for the second semester. The results from the student reflections indicated an increase in self-motivated and self-directed student learning during the second semester.

Validity, Intra-Rater Reliability and Normative Data of the Neuroflexor™ Device to Measure Spasticity of the Ankle Plantar Flexors after Stroke.

Quantification of lower limb spasticity after stroke and the differentiation of neural from passive muscle resistance remain key clinical challenges. The aim of this study was to validate the novel NeuroFlexor foot module, to assess the intrarater reliability of measurements and to identify normative cut-off values. Fifteen patients with chronic stroke with clinical history of spasticity and 18 healthy subjects were examined with the NeuroFlexor foot module at controlled velocities. Elastic, viscous and neural components of passive dorsiflexion resistance were quantified (in Newton, N). The neural component, reflecting stretch reflex mediated resistance, was validated against electromyography activity. A test-retest design with a 2-way random effects model permitted study of intra-rater reliability. Finally, data from 73 healthy subjects were used to establish cutoff values according to mean + 3 standard deviations and receiver operating characteristic curve analysis. The neural component was higher in stroke patients, increased with stretch velocity and correlated with electromyography amplitude. Reliability was high for the neural component (intraclass correlation coefficient model 2.1 (ICC2,1) ≥ 0.903) and good for the elastic component (ICC2,1 ≥ 0.898). Cutoff values were identified, and all patients with neural component above the limit presented pathological electromyography amplitude (area under the curve (AUC) = 1.00, sensitivity = 100%, specificity = 100%). The NeuroFlexor may offer a clinically feasible and non-invasive way to objectively quantify lower limb spasticity.

High-sucrose diet-fed male rats show affectations in pubococcygeus reflex activation and myofiber content

In males, the function of the pubococcygeus muscle (Pcm) shows a high androgen dependency. High sucrose intake increases testosterone levels in pubertal male rats. We aimed to analyze the Pcm reflex activity and fiber type in response to a 30 % sucrose diet. Wistar male rats were assigned into two groups: control and sugar. The Pcm electromyographic activity was recorded during the mechanical stimulation of the scrotal skin and penis. We also determined the relative levels of Glut4 expression, glycogen content, myofiber cross-sectional area (CSA), and the content of glycolytic and oxidative with NADH-TR or fast, intermediate, and slow fibers with alkaline (pH 9.4) ATPase histochemistry. The sugar group showed a short Pcm reflex activity, a higher Glut4 expression, and glycogen content; the CSA fibers showed a significant difference in the percentage of fibers with the different transversal areas. The number of nuclei was positively correlated with the CSA of the Pcm fibers. There was also a decrease in oxidative fibers but an increase in glycolytic fibers, while the content of fast muscle fibers increased to the detriment of intermediate and slow fibers. Thus, a high-sugar diet reduced Pcm reflex activity, fiber type, and dysregulation of skeletal muscle energy metabolism.

Efferent Control in Musicians: A Review

It is widely established that musicians possess a higher level in certain auditory perceptual abilities when compared to non-musicians. This improvement may be mediated, at least in part, by changes in the cochlear response induced by reflex activation of the olivocochlear efferent system. In this review, we describe and analyze the scientific evidence regarding possible differences in the efferent response in musicians and non-musicians. The main evidence observed is that musicians present a greater robustness of the efferent olivocochlear reflex when measured by suppression of otoacoustic emissions and compared to non-musicians. Analyzing the articles presented in this review, it is possible to point out that the differential role of the efferent effect in musicians is not yet established. There is not enough evidence to support the idea that the olivocochlear system favors comparative changes in the properties of musicians' auditory filters. New studies with psychoacoustic techniques, among others, are needed to measure the effect of the olivocochlear reflex on tuning, gain, compression, or temporal resolution in musicians and non-musicians.

Biomechanics and lower limb function are altered in athletes and runners with achilles tendinopathy compared with healthy controls: A systematic review.

Achilles tendinopathy (AT) is a debilitating injury in athletes, especially for those engaged in repetitive stretch-shortening cycle activities. Clinical risk factors are numerous, but it has been suggested that altered biomechanics might be associated with AT. No systematic review has been conducted investigating these biomechanical alterations in specifically athletic populations. Therefore, the aim of this systematic review was to compare the lower-limb biomechanics of athletes with AT to athletically matched asymptomatic controls. Databases were searched for relevant studies investigating biomechanics during gait activities and other motor tasks such as hopping, isolated strength tasks, and reflex responses. Inclusion criteria for studies were an AT diagnosis in at least one group, cross-sectional or prospective data, at least one outcome comparing biomechanical data between an AT and healthy group, and athletic populations. Studies were excluded if patients had Achilles tendon rupture/surgery, participants reported injuries other than AT, and when only within-subject data was available.. Effect sizes (Cohen's d) with 95% confidence intervals were calculated for relevant outcomes. The initial search yielded 4,442 studies. After screening, twenty studies (775 total participants) were synthesised, reporting on a wide range of biomechanical outcomes. Females were under-represented and patients in the AT group were three years older on average. Biomechanical alterations were identified in some studies during running, hopping, jumping, strength tasks and reflex activity. Equally, several biomechanical variables studied were not associated with AT in included studies, indicating a conflicting picture. Kinematics in AT patients appeared to be altered in the lower limb, potentially indicating a pattern of "medial collapse". Muscular activity of the calf and hips was different between groups, whereby AT patients exhibited greater calf electromyographic amplitudes despite lower plantar flexor strength. Overall, dynamic maximal strength of the plantar flexors, and isometric strength of the hips might be reduced in the AT group. This systematic review reports on several biomechanical alterations in athletes with AT. With further research, these factors could potentially form treatment targets for clinicians, although clinical approaches should take other contributing health factors into account. The studies included were of low quality, and currently no solid conclusions can be drawn.

HUMAN TRAFFICKING AND WAR IN UKRAINE: RESILIENCE IN EXPLORING STUDENT RESPONSE

This paper meets challenges in exploring the problems of human trafficking awareness among Ukrainian youth under war conditions. The mission of this social and pedagogical linguistic initiative has been reconsidered in the framework of the CEFRES fellowship, given the general and specific pre-conditions of vulnerability to human trafficking among Ukrainian youth. The paper highlights physical, psychological, technical, and pedagogical difficulties and offers solutions for resilient research. Attention is drawn to adjusting the methods under limitations such as a reduced sample of volunteering respondents and measuring the war impact. The solutions include accumulating empirical data for significant measurements for two academic years and upcoming surveying possibilities regarding the “war vs. no war” factors. Other outcomes of tackling impediments imply the possibility of retaining students’ attention to human trafficking under war conditions through immersive experiences and reflexive activities with simultaneous collecting empirical data, introducing the awareness activities into the e-course (Moodle), and encouraging students to explore cases and evaluate the message. These solutions can help filter the significant results under four parameters of the CEFRES-supported project such as metaphor, storytelling, schemata, and sensory language for registering effective ways of immersive learning experiences.

Efetividade da reabilitação vestibular no equilíbrio, tontura, funcionalidade e sintomas depressivos em idosos

ABSTRACT Purpose To assess the effectiveness of vestibular rehabilitation on functioning, gains in semicircular canals in the Video Head Impulse Test (v-HIT), on responses to the vestibular evoked myogenic potentials (VEMP), depressive symptoms, balance, and dizziness in older adults. Methods Longitudinal, quasi-experimental, analytical study conducted between December 2019 and July 2022, in 50 older adults with vestibular disorders, submitted to vestibular rehabilitation and examinations: VEMP, v-HIT, the questionnaires, visual analog scale, Dizziness Handicap Inventory, Berg Balance Scale, Pfeffer’s Functional Activities Questionnaire, and Geriatric Depression Scale. All examinations and questionnaires were applied before and after eight weekly vestibular rehabilitation sessions. Statistical analysis was performed in SPSS, with the Wilcoxon test (p&lt;0.05). Results There was a gain in the anterior right semicircular canal (0.71/0.78), reduction in dizziness discomfort (7/5) and in the impact of dizziness on the quality of life (35/15), improvement in balance (45/51) and functioning (2/1), and reduction in depressive symptoms (5/3). Conclusion Older adults with vestibular disorder submitted to vestibular rehabilitation improved their gain in vestibulo-ocular reflex, balance, and functional activities and reduced their depressive symptoms and the impact of dizziness on their quality of life.

Кіші мектеп оқушыларының оқыту процесін психологиялық зерттеу

The article describes the effective directions of the teaching process and mental development of a junior high school student. It says that the opinions of domestic and foreign scientists should be analyzed and priority areas should be taken into account. In psychological research, the initial methodological conditions used during the education of junior school students and ways of their psychological clarification are provided. The peculiarity of primary school is that teaching depends more on the teacher than on the school curriculum. Although there are a lot of requirements and teaching tasks in the curriculum, a competent teacher tries to minimize themand explain themto the student in a concise manner.The psychological study of education is consideredto be the systematization and analysis of the most rational ways and methods of managing the educational process at the present time. The problem of increasing the efficiency of the educational process due to the structural and systematic analysis of the educational material attracts the attention of scientists.In the educational process, it is no longer enough to acquire simple skills such as reading, writing, counting, and calculating. The formation of these skills includes solving broader and more important tasks:First of all, to introduce children to subject education in the logic of scientific knowledge, to reveal to them the basic and fundamental properties of the studied sphere of existence that make up the content of this science. Thus, the acquisition of reading skills becomes the study of language as a means of communication and thinking, and simple counting skills -the study of numerical relationships.Secondly, the formation of learning activities in children with their own tasks and methods. At the current stage of development of our society, a person should be engaged in educational activities throughout his life. This is the second "specialty" of each person, the ability to realize it depends mainly on the progress in the chosen profession.Thirdly, it is necessary to use all opportunities of the primary education period for the formation of learning motives and intellectual development of children.An urgent problem in solving the problem of increasing the efficiency and quality of the educational process is the activation of schoolchildren's learning. Its special importance is that teaching, being a reflexive and transformative activity, is aimed not only at the reception and memorization of the learning material but also at the formation ofthe student's attitude towards the cognitive activity itself. The transformative nature of the activity is always related to the activity of the subject.

Neural-like growing networks in the development of general intelligence. Neural-like growing networks (P. II)

This article is devoted to the development of general artificial intelligence (AGI) based on a new type of neural networks – “neural-like growing networks”. It consists of two parts. The first one was published in N4, 2022, and describes an artificial neural-like element (artificial neuron) in terms of its functionality, which is as close as possible to a biological neuron. An artificial neural-like element is the main element in building neural-like growing networks. The second part deals with the structures and functions of artificial and natural neural networks. The paper proposes a new approach for creating neural-like growing networks as a means of developing AGI that is as close as possible to the natural intelligence of a person. The intelligence of man and living organisms is formed by their nervous system. According to I.P. Pavlov's definition, the main mechanism of higher nervous activity is the reflex activity of the nervous system. In the nerve cell, the main storage of unconditioned reflexes is the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) molecule. The article describes ribosomal protein synthesis that contributes to the implementation of unconditioned reflexes and the formation of conditioned reflexes as the basis for learning biological objects. The first part of the work shows that the structure and functions of ribosomes almost completely coincide with the structure and functions of the Turing machine. Turing invented this machine to prove the fundamental (theoretical) possibility of constructing arbitrarily complex algorithms from extremely simple operations, and the operations themselves are performed automatically. Here arises a stunning analogy, nature created DNA and the ribosome to build complex algorithms for creating biological objects and their communication with each other and with the external environment, and the ribosomal protein synthesis is carried out by many ribosomes at the same time. It was concluded that the nerve cells of the brain are analog multi-machine complexes – ultra-fast molecular supercomputers with an unusually simple analog programming device.

Objectivity of scientific reflection

The article focuses on scientific reflection. The transcendental reflection does not analyse the content of knowledge, but reveals its conditions and is a condition of scientific research. This is not only thinking about thinking, but also the operations of identifying and distinguishing sensory data, and the rules for structuring the universe. The selection of input data depends on objective cognitive operations. Reflection reveals possible ways of transforming nature. Different forms of reflection achieve different goals. Reflection as a metatheory builds a fundament for future science. The analysis of cognitive procedures reveals the privileged status of classical theory and possible ways of creating non-classical theories. The classical theory is the original theory from which the non-classical ones are derived. Correspondently, scientific knowledge is divided into initial and derived forms. Derived forms are established by second-order reflection. Thus, the objective structure of science is conditioned by the structure of the reflexive activity of the mind.

WPersistent Hiccup Reflex Activation for Two Days as a Complication of Dental Implant Surgery: A Case Report

WPersistent Hiccup Reflex Activation for Two Days as a Complication of Dental Implant Surgery: A Case Report