Pest Reduction Research Articles

Assessment of Bioefficacy and Phytotoxicity of Fipronil Against Grapevine Thrips Under Open Field Condition

Evaluation of new insecticide molecules is inevitable in agriculture to overcome insecticide resistance development in agricultural and horticultural crop pests. Experiments for assessment of bioefficacy of fipronil 80 WG against grapes thrips was conducted in two seasons at Madhampatti village, Thondamuthur, Coimbatore. Fipronil 80 WG at five different doses (30, 40, 50, 80 and 100 g a.i. ha-1), fipronil 5 SC in two different doses (40 and 50 g a.i. ha-1), chlorpyriphos 20 EC @ 200 g a.i. ha-1 along with untreated check were taken as treatments for the evaluation. After imposing the treatments twice at fifteen days interval, the highest pest reduction was noticed in plots treated with fipronil 80 WG @ 100, 80, 50 and 40 g a.i.ha-1 to the tune of 82.17, 81.67, 81.04 and 80.35 % over untreated check, respectively. Among the various treatments, fipronil 80 WG @ 100 g.a.i.ha-1 recorded a significantly higher fruit yield of 8.23 t ha-1 which was on par with fipronil 80 WG @ 80 g.a.i.ha-1 (8.17 t ha-1) and 50 g.a.i.ha-1 (8.00 t ha-1). Grapes sprayed with fipronil 80 WG @ 50, 100 and 200 g.a.i.ha-1 doses did not show any phytotoxic effects like epinasty, hyponasty, leaf injury, wilting, vein clearing and necrosis. To conclude, fibronil 80WG @ 50 g a.i. ha-1 was recorded on par with other higher doses in reducing the thrips population and increasing the fruit yield. Hence, fibronil 80 WG @ 50 g a.i. ha-1 may be recommended for the management of thrips in grapes.

Nest Boxes Increased Presence of American Kestrels in a Blueberry Production Region Despite Low Box Occupancy

ABSTRACT Landscape enhancements such as nest boxes can attract birds to agricultural areas, where they can provide ecosystem services such as pest reduction through their consumption of crop pests. However, there are large gaps in knowledge about how birds respond to enhancements. From 2014 to 2018 we installed American Kestrel (Falco sparverius; hereafter kestrel) nest boxes in a blueberry production region in western Michigan. From 2015 to 2018 we conducted surveys to monitor kestrel presence along 1.6-km transect segments (hereafter, sites) to estimate kestrel occupancy in areas with and without boxes. We also monitored box occupancy and reproductive success. Kestrel presence increased over time in the study area although there was some uncertainty in this trend. The presence of a box at a site did not increase kestrel presence there, but boxes in neighboring sites did increase presence. This indicated that enriching an area with boxes increases kestrel presence. Box occupancy rates were positively influenced by occupancy of the same box the previous year. Percent successful nests ranged from 75 to 100 percent, and mean number of fledglings produced was approximately 4 per nest box. Our results showed that nest boxes can serve as effective landscape enhancements to attract kestrels to agricultural landscapes, but the degree to which kestrels occupy boxes can vary geographically. Local-scale studies can provide information about the potential benefits and challenges of using nest boxes as a pest management tool.

Evaluation of Phytoseiid and Iolinid Mites for Biological Control of the Tomato Russet Mite Aculops lycopersici (Acari: Eriophyidae).

Our search for a suitable biological agent to control the tomato russet mite (TRM), Aculops lycopersici, was initiated in 2013. Neoseiulus californicus, Amblyseius andersoni, and Neoseiulus fallacis showed a promising pest reduction potential in a curative control strategy. Although these beneficials had a low survival on tomato and were not able to eradicate the pest, plants did not present typical TRM damage. However, their inability to establish in the tomato crop means that their commercial use would require repeated introductions, making their use too expensive for growers. Other predatory mites in the survey, such as the iolinids Homeopronematus anconai and Pronematus ubiquitus, showed the potential for a preventative strategy as they can establish and reach high densities on tomato with weekly or biweekly provision of Typha angustifolia pollen as a food source. When the tomato crop was adequately colonized by either iolinid, the development of TRM and any damage symptoms could be successfully prevented. The potential of iolinid predatory mites for biological control of eriophyids is discussed.

Pesticides Identification and Sustainable Viticulture Practices to Reduce Their Use: An Overview

The use of pesticides is a necessary practice in the modern era. Therefore, it is impossible to ignore the pesticide market, which has developed into one of the most lucrative in the world. Nowadays, humans are subjected to many potential risks, and significant amounts of toxic compounds enter their bodies through food, drink, and the air itself. Identification and quantification of these hazardous compounds is crucial for the sustainable development of an increasing world population which poses high climatic and political constraints on agricultural production systems. The maximum residue limits for pesticides have been regulated by the Codex Alimentarius Commission and European Union to protect human health. In this review, we have summarized and explained the analytical methods for pesticide extraction and determination. Also, sustainable viticulture practices like organic vineyards, tillage, biopesticides, nanobiopesticides, and precision viticulture are briefly discussed. These new techniques allow wine growers to be more profitable and efficient, while contributing to the reduction of pests and increasing the quality of wines.

Far from home: Bat activity and diversity in row crop agriculture decreases with distance to potential roost habitat

As demand for food increases, agricultural production is poised to increase dramatically. Pesticides are commonly used to maintain high crop yield, though they have several drawbacks, including reduced efficacy over time and harmful effects to human and ecosystem health. Bats are highly effective predators of crop pests and have great potential to reduce crop damage resulting from insects. However, few studies have investigated how pest control by bats might change over large expanses of continuous row crop agriculture, which is common in the midwestern USA. Agricultural landscapes offer few roosting opportunities and could be difficult for bats to traverse, which might affect the degree of ecosystem services provided by bats. We hypothesized that with increasing distance into uninterrupted row crop agriculture 1) bat activity would decrease and 2) bat species richness would decrease, but that these effects would be buffered when insect pest abundance is high. We deployed 50 acoustic bat detectors over 10 transects in east-central Illinois from July to September 2021. In each transect, we placed detectors on crop field edges at increasing distance from a large riparian corridor assumed to be frequented by bats. Bat activity was high across the landscape but declined by 56% from the forest edge to 4000 m into row crop agriculture, while bat diversity decreased by 34%. Pest abundance seemed to decrease overall bat activity but had no effect on bat diversity. These results indicate that bats, although able to have a large effect on crop pest reduction, might not be as efficient in suppressing crop pests in vast uninterrupted agricultural landscapes which offer scant roost availability. Our work will inform recommendations to landowners and private lands managers on ways to increase bat access to roosts and forest cover near agricultural areas, thereby enhancing the potential for bats to provide pest control services.

Revisiting implementation of multiple natural enemies in pest management

A major goal of biological control is the reduction and/or eradication of pests using various natural enemies, in particular, via deliberate infection of the target species by parasites. To enhance the biological control, a promising strategy seems to implement a multi-enemy assemblage rather than a single control agent. Although a large body of theoretical studies exists on co-infections in epidemiology and ecology, there is still a big gap in modelling outcomes of multi-enemy biological control. Here we theoretically investigate how the efficiency of biological control of a pest depends on the number of natural enemies used. We implement a combination of eco-epidemiological modelling and the Adaptive Dynamics game theory framework. We found that a progressive addition of parasite species increases the evolutionarily stable virulence of each parasite, and thus enhances the mortality of the target pest. However, using multiple enemies may have only a marginal effect on the success of biological control, or can even be counter-productive when the number of enemies is excessive. We found the possibility of evolutionary suicide, where one or several parasite species go extinct over the course of evolution. Finally, we demonstrate an interesting scenario of coexistence of multiple parasites at the edge of extinction.

Preliminary studies on the parasitism rate of larval parasitoids of the diamondback moth (Plutella xylostella) L. (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae) in the Ashanti region of Ghana

The diamondback moth, Plutella xylostella L. (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae) is the most important pest of the brassicas worldwide. Over the years, management of this pest has largely relied on conventional insecticides, with well-documented negative impacts. Biological control using indigenous natural enemies is a promising way to manage the pest while reducing the use of synthetic insecticides. However, due to the negative impact of synthetic insecticides on beneficial insects, the number of natural enemies in the agroecosystem is often below the levels that may have significant pest reduction. Here, we assessed the range and parasitism rates of the larval parasitoids of P. xylostella in the Ashanti Region of Ghana. On the whole, one hymenopteran endo-parasitoid species, Cotesia plutellae, was identified in the P. xylostella larval samples. In all, the percentage of field parasitism of P. xylostella larvae ranged between 11% and 23%. Given the percentage of parasitism in this preliminary study, we are of the view that there is potential in relying on endemic parasitoids to biologically manage P. xylostella if conditions in agroecology are improved to encourage the survival of these beneficial insects.

Optimizing control of flea beetles through ecological engineering of vegetable agroecosystem in Kashmir

Ecological engineering is a concept of habitat manipulation to reduce dependence on insecticides. It is the intentional involvement of plant communities and insectary plants in managed landscapes influencing natural enemies survival. These natural enemies lead to reduction in pest population in environmentally acceptable production practices. Field experiments were conducted during 2019 and 2020 to evaluate impact of ecological engineering on the flea beetles, P. striolata and A. himensis and their natural enemies on brinjal crop. Three treatments with different plant species were worked out for pest management study. Results showed that Treatment I caused maximum increase in mean number of natural enemies (1.11/ 10 plants) which in turn brought maximum mean pest reduction. Treatment II caused second maximum increase in mean number of natural enemies (0.92/ 10 plants). Treatment III caused minimum increase in mean number of natural enemies (0.68/ 10 plants). The diversity of predators was documented in different treatments. Simpson’s diversity index, Shannon-Weiner index and Evenness index were found higher in Treatment I followed by Treatment II and Treatment III. The maximum mean % increase of natural enemies in main crop over control (250.52 %) with maximum mean % reduction of target pest (63.46 %) was observed in Treatment I. The mean % increase of natural enemies in main crop over control (167.44 %) with mean % reduction of target pest (54.41 %) was observed in Treatment II. The mean % increase of natural enemies in main crop over control (20.97%) with mean % reduction of target pest (48.88%) was observed in Treatment III.

Organic pest management of hill crops through locally available plant extracts in the mid‐Himalayas

AbstractThe present investigation was aimed to assess the best organic pest management practices in soybean and Indian rape cultivation systems in the mid‐Himalayas. Based on the preliminary laboratory assays, promising treatments were selected for field assays for 3 years. It was observed that Parthenium leaf extract 5% provided significantly higher pest reduction in field condition with 76.8% at 7 DAT (days after treatment) against sucking bug, Chauliops choprai infesting soybean. In case of mustard aphids (Lipaphis erysimi) infesting Indian rape, Nimbicidine 5 ml L−1 was found superior with 61.5% pest reduction, followed by 5% seed extract of Melia azedarach at 7 DAT in field condition. Contrary to pest reduction, the pooled yield data analysis showed that among organic treatments, spraying of Nimbicidine @ 5 ml L−1 recorded significantly superior yield over control with yield advantage of 29%, followed by M. azedarach seed extract 5% and 10%, both recording 21% yield advantage in case of soybean. Nimbicidine was also superior for Indian rape crop with yield advantage of 51%, followed by Beauveria bassiana @ 3 g L−1 with 44% and 5% seed extract of M. azedarach with 33% yield advantage compared to control. Hence, Parthenium leaf extract 5% and Nimbicidine are recommended for effective control of C. choprai and L. erysimi infesting soybean and Indian rape, respectively. But to achieve higher yield, Nimbicidine is the best among organic management of those pests for both crops. These results suggest good organic pest management options in organic farming system.

Comparative efficacy of bio-agents and botanical extracts against Helicoverpa armigera (Hubner) on chickpea (Cicer arietinum l.) crop

Efficacy of bio-agents and botanical extracts against H. armigera was assessed in the field during the 2020-2021 Rabi Season, with three replications of the Randomize Block Design. When compared to the control, all of the bio-agents and botanical extracts tested were found to be effective in suppressing the gram pod borer infestation. Beauveria bassiana was shown to be the most effective in reducing H. armigera 14.18 percent pod damage, followed by Metarhizium anisopliae -15.37 percent pod damage, among all the spray materials studied. Pod infestation was lowest in the Beauveria bassiana test plots and highest in the control plots. Similarly, the Beauveria bassiana treated plot yielded the most (14.48 q/ha), while the control plot produced the least (8. q/ha). Beauveria bassiana was found to be the most effective in controlling Gram pod borer infestation, resulting in the least amount of pod damage and thus increased Chickpea yield. However, the Chemical and synthetic insecticide was extremely toxic. Furthermore, Metarhizium anisopliae, EPN, Custard apple leaf extract, Sweet flag rhizome oil and clove oil extract also showed better results than control in term of pest reduction and were comparatively safe to the environment. Hence these botanicals and bio-agents should be included in IPM program for the suitable management of H. armigera associated with Chickpea crop.

Landscape simplification increases Bactrocera oleae abundance in olive groves: adult population dynamics in different land uses

Bactrocera oleae is the main pest in olive groves, and its management requires a sustainable perspective to reduce the use of chemical products. Landscape context is being considered as an important driver of pest reduction, but results on B. oleae show inconsistency to date. Most of landscape-pest control studies focus on the dynamics of the pests within the focal crop, ignoring these dynamics in other land uses. Here we present a study in which we analyze the seasonal population dynamics of the olive pest B. oleae in the most important land uses of a typical olive landscape in Portugal. We found that B. oleae is present in all the land uses and the dynamics are very similar to those in the olive groves. However, the presence of these land uses in the landscape did not display any increase in B. oleae abundance within the olive groves. In contrast, a landscape mainly composed by olive groves increased the abundance of this pest. Importantly, more diverse landscapes surrounding olive groves reduce the abundance of the olive fly. Based on these findings, we can conclude that B. oleae is present in all the land uses of the studied landscape but that this presence does not imply an increase of B. oleae in olive groves. Indeed, other land uses can promote landscape diversification which is a driver of the reduction of B. oleae populations in olive groves. We thus encourage olive stakeholders to increase landscape diversification around their farms by promoting/restoring other crops/habitats.

Management of Gram Caterpillar, Helicoverpa armigera (Hubner) with Bt Formulation in Chickpea under Organic Conditions

Background: Chickpea is an important pulse crop and grown widely in the world. Similar to other crops it is vulnerable to a broad range of insect-pests. Mainly, the gram pod borer, Helicoverpa armigera severe pest being that causes huge losses to chickpea crop. Farmers generally rely on chemical measures for its management that leads to various problems viz. resistance development, pest resurgence and residue problem along with environmental degradation. Methods: During 2018-19 and 2019-20 microbial pesticide viz. Bacillus thuringiensis var. kurstaki 0.5 WP (DOR Bt 1) was tested @ 1.5, 1.75 and 2.0 kg/ha for the management of gram caterpillar, Helicoverpa armigera in chickpea at Organic Research Farm, Punjab Agricultural University (PAU), Ludhiana. The application of spray was carried out, first at pod initiation and second 15 days thereafter. The observations were recorded on the larval population per meter plant row after 7 and 15 days of spray. The pod damage was recorded at the time of harvest wherein random samples of 200 pods per plot per replication were collected to observe the number of damaged pods. Result: On overall mean basis at 15 DAS, the lowest larval population was observed in DOR Bt-1 @ 2.0 kg/ha (1.19 larvae/ 5 plants) followed by 1.75 kg/ha (1.54 larvae/ metre plant row) and 1.5 kg/ha (1.79 larvae/metre plant row) as against highest larval count in untreated control (3.20/metre plant row) on chickpea. The DOR Bt-1 @ 2.0 kg/ha performed better due to highest pest reduction (62.81%) than its lower dosages DOR Bt-1 @ 1.75 kg/ha (51.88%) and DOR Bt-1 @ 1.5 kg/ha (44.06%) at 15 DAS. Also, DOR Bt-1 @ 2.0 kg/ha recorded highest pod damage reduction (76.14%) over its lower dosages, i.e., DOR Bt-1 @ 1.75 kg/ha (54.18%) and DOR Bt-1 @ 1.5 kg/ha (38.24%). DOR Bt-1 @ 2.00 kg/ha (1275 kg/ha) was better due to highest yield compared to its lower dosages and the untreated control, where there was lower yield.

NATURAL COVER SURROUNDING THE FARM FIELD REDUCES CROP DAMAGE AND PEST ABUNDANCE IN BRAZILIAN DRYLAND

ABSTRACT One of the major ecosystem services delivered to agriculture worldwide is the reduction of pests by natural enemies. However, the landscape composition affects multiple dimensions of pest control, and non-crop habitat surrounding farm fields shows variable responses across geographies. Here, crop damage and pest abundance were compared between local farms with two antagonistic land cover and land use aspects (1- High conservation, landscape with high structural complexity; 2- High degradation, landscapes with low complexity). The field data were collected at experimental guava orchards in the Cariri Paraibano, one of the driest regions in the Brazilian Caatinga. The results show that damage caused by orthopterans and their abundance was significantly smaller in the landscape with high structural complexity. Therefore, the results support the hypothesis that crop damage and pest abundance are smaller in landscapes with high structural complexity. Additionally, the results are very important for the dryland regions as they provide information about the relationship between landscape structure and crop damage plus pest abundance in a regional gap. As drylands are critically endangered in all American continents, sustainable agricultural landscapes with the application of natural cover restoration can help drylands to achieve sustainable development.

ABUNDANCE, DAMAGE SEVERITY OF MAJOR INSECT PESTS OF CHILLI AND THEIR SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT THROUGH IPM BASED MODULES

Chilli (Capsicum annuum L.) is a vital and the most essential spice as well as vegetable crop in Bangladesh. Nowadays, the productivity of chilli is being decrease due to attack of insect pests. For the purpose of study on the abundance and damage severity, randomize 10 plants were selected from the experimental field. Besides, a field investigation was conducted at the field laboratory of Department of Entomology, Bangladesh Agricultural University (BAU), Mymensingh, Bangladesh in a randomized block design (RCBD) with a plot size of 1m2 with each treatment replicated three times in order to know the feasibility of four IPM based modules against major insect pests of chilli during Rabi season, 2020-2021 where Chilli variety BARI Morich-03 was used as an experimental crop. Results revealed that aphid exhibited the highest number of population (312.89/plant) and it caused damage maximum (36.57%) too which was followed by 264.36, 206.42, 186.95/plant and 32.16%, 23.45%, 19.88% in thrips, mites and jassid, respectively. The rank of incidence and damage was aphid>thrips>mites>jassid. On the contrary, for controlling the insect pests of chilli, of different IPM based modules, M-2 module was found the most promising in reducing the population of aphids (22.47/plant), thrips (53.18/plant), mites (62.45/plant), jassid (54.12/plant) and fruit borer (3.19/plant), where were obtained the greater plant height (72.35cm), highest number of branches (31.02/plant) & green fruits (404.13/plant) per plant, maximum weight of 1000 seed (4.03g) and better yield (8.42 t/ha). Furthermore, the highest benefit cost ratio (BCR) (1:1.56) was recorded by M-2 modules followed by M-4 (1:1.44), M-1 (1:1.12) and M-3 (1:1.09), respectively. Thus, the overall order of effectiveness of various IPM based modules was M-2>M-4>M-1>M-3. From the result, it also may be concluded that the cumulative insect pests per plant was strong as well as negatively correlated with the yield (t/ha) i.e. yield was increased due to decrease of cumulative insect pests per plant in chilli production. Therefore, M-2 can be used to reduction of major insect pests of chilli, environment safely and increased yield of chilli.

ECO-FRIENDLY AND COST-EFFECTIVE MANAGEMENT OF TOMATO FRUIT BORER (HELICOVERPA ARMIGERA) IN LAMJUNG DISTRICT OF NEPAL

A field experiment was conducted in Besishahar Municipality, Lamjung to identify eco-friendly and effective pesticides against tomato fruit borer (Helicoverpa armigera). The experiment setup was designed in Randomized complete block design (RCBD) with 7 treatments viz. are T1(Neem extract), T2(Bacillus thuringiensis), T3(Spinosad), T4(HNPv), T5( Tobacco extract), T6(Metarhizium anisopliae) and T7(control) and each treatment was replicated four times Spinosad gave highest percentage reduction of pest over control (PROC) 66.52% and 68.85% after the 1st and 2nd spray respectively. Bacillus thuringiensis was found to be another promising insecticide reducing the larval population with PROC (49.55%) after 2nd spray. The highest marketable fruit yield (48.50 ton/ha) and lowest fruit damage (8.53 ton/ha) were obtained from Spinosad treated plots followed by Bacillus thuringiensis with a marketable yield of 46 ton/ha and fruit damage of 11.47ton/ha. The highest benefit-cost ratio was obtained from spinosad (2.05) followed by Bacillus thuringiensis (1.94). Thus, spinosad and Bacillus thuringiensis could be the potential option for the management of tomato fruit borer and increasing the return.

A tritrophic interaction model for an olive tree pest, the olive moth — Prays oleae (Bernard)

The olive tree (Olea europaea L.) is among the oldest and most widespread crops in the Mediterranean basin. Portugal is the third olive producer in the European Union, and Trás-os-Montes region, located in northeastern Portugal, is the second Portuguese producing olive region.The olive moth, Prays oleae (Bernard) (Lepidoptera: Praydidae) is a key olive pest in Trás-os-Montes. This pest is a natural host/prey of several organisms which include larvae of generalist and specialist parasitoids as well as generalist predators and entomopathogens. Its most abundant parasitoid is the specialist Ageniaspis fuscicollis (Dalman) (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) and this, in Trás-os-Montes region, is commonly followed by the facultative hyperparasitoid Elasmus flabellatus (Fonscolombe) (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae). Spiders represent a relevant group of generalist predators in olive agroecosystems and encompass an important predatory action in agroecosystems as well as an ability to reduce the populations of various insect pests. In this context, a mathematical model, considering the population of the olive moth, the two parasitoids populations and the spider population as the variables in our system, was constructed. The ecosystem steady states for feasibility and stability were assessed. The possible pesticide effects, that represent essentially extra mortality rates for each one of the insect populations, and potential abundance variations on their populations under a climate change scenario were included. Results indicate that the most important natural control agent is A. fuscicollis but in certain conditions E. flabellatus or spiders may be relevant contributors for the pest reduction. This approach may provide a useful tool to assist the field researchers on this pest system and its management.

Biological Diabrotica Management and Monitoring of Metarhizium Diversity in Austrian Maize Fields Following Mass Application of the Entomopathogen Metarhizium brunneum

Inundative mass application of Metarhizium brunneum BIPESCO 5 (Hypocreales, Clavicipitaceae) is used for the biological control of Diabrotica v. virgifera (Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae). Long-term field trials were performed in three Austrian maize fields—with different cultivation techniques and infestation rates—in order to evaluate the efficacy of the treatment to control the pest larvae. In addition, the indigenous Metarhizium spp. population structure was assessed to compare the different field sites with BIPESCO 5 mass application. Annual application of the product Granmet-PTM (Metarhizium colonized barley kernels) significantly increased the density of Metarhizium spp. in the treated soil above the upper natural background level of 1000 colony forming units per gram dry weight soil. Although a decrease in the pest population over time was not achieved in heavily infested areas, less damage occurred in treated field sites in comparison to control sites. The Metarhizium population structure was significantly different between the treated field sites. Results showed that inundative mass application should be repeated regularly to achieve good persistence of the biological control agent, and indicated that despite intensive applications, indigenous populations of Metarhizium spp. can coexist in these habitats. To date, crop rotation remains the method of choice for pest reduction in Europe, however continuous and preventive application of M. brunneum may also present an alternative for the successful biological control of Diabrotica.

Efficacy of IPM Modules Against Major Insect Pests of Common Bean Phaseolus vulgaris

This experiment evaluated some IPM modules against pests of common bean Phaseolus vulgaris, and observed that the module with soil application of carbofuran 3G @ 32.5 kg/ ha+1st of spray with dimethoate 30EC @ 0.03% (45 days after sowing- DAS) and 2nd with dichlorvos 76SC @ 0.076% (70 DAS) was the most effective. This resulted in maximum reduction of pests (76.85, 75.43, 69.97% of aphid, whitefly and weevil, respectively) and resulted in maximum gross returns (`₹94,068), net returns (``₹64,017) and benefit cost ratio (2.13). Besides, these effect of intercropping of beans with maize revealed a reduced population density of all the major pests, as compared to sole bean crop.

Bio-efficacy of Unmanned Aerial Vehicle based spraying to manage pests

An agricultural spraying system for UAV platform was developed at the Department of Farm Machinery and Power Engineering, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana during 2019 to spray pesticides in cotton, rice and moong crops for the control of pests. The developed aerial spraying system was operated at three flying speeds, i.e. S1 (2.0 m/s), S2 (3.0 m/s) and S3 (4.0 m/s) and at three flying heights, i.e. H1 (0.50 m), H2 (0.75 m) and H3 (1.0 m). Whitefly and brown plant hopper (BPH) were the targeted pest and its bio-efficacy data were collected after spray application. Results indicated that flying height and forward speed had significant effect on bio-efficacy in all the three crops. In cotton, whitefly populations varied between 19.00-21.40 per three leaves. The maximum percent, i.e. 84.85% reduction in white fly population was observed at 7 DAS in H1S1 treatment. In rice, BPH population was varied between 6.60-9.47 per hill followed by control 17.20 per hill. Maximum percent reduction in BPH population was observed 67.42% at 7 DAS in H3S1 treatment. In moong, reduction in whitefly population was varied between 4.87-5.80 per plant followed by control (7.00 per plant). After three days of spray, combination of flying heights (H1, H2 and H3) and forward speeds (S1, S2 and S3) were found to be significantly effective in dropping whitefly and BPH population. Increase in flying height and forward speed reduced percentage reduction of pests. Combination of flying heights H1 and H2 and forward speeds S1 and S2 treatments were found significantly effective in controlling pests in all three crops.

The effect of organic farming on water reusability, sustainable ecosystem, and food toxicity.

Water is a fundamental necessity for people's well-being and the ecosystem's sustainability; however, its toxicity due to agrochemicals usage for food production leads to the deterioration of water quality. The poor water quality diminishes its reusability, thus limiting efficient water usage. Organic farming is one of the best ways that does not only reduce the deterioration of water quality but also decrease food toxicity. In organic farming, the crop is grown with no/less chemical usage. Besides, organic farming maintains biodiversity and reduces the anthropogenic footprint on soil, air, water, wildlife, and especially on the farming communities. Fields that are organically managed continuously for years have fewer pest populations and were attributed to increased biodiversity and abundance of multi-trophic interactions as well as to changes in plant metabolites. Fewer insect pests (pathogen vectors), in turn, would result in fewer crop diseases and increase crop production. This review highlights that organic farming may play a critical role in the reduction of pests and pathogens, which eventually would reduce the need for chemical reagents to protect crops, improving yield quality and water reusability.