Reduction Of Free Fatty Acids Research Articles

898-P: Colonic Acetate Production in Youth with and without Obesity

Recent studies suggest that gut microbiota can modulate body weight via products of bacterial fermentation. We tested the hypothesis that, for the same amount of fermentable carbohydrate, lean and obese youth have a different capability to produce acetate in the colon. We also tested the effect of colonic fermentation on plasma glucose, insulin, C-peptide, and free fatty acids (FFA). 38 youth, ages 15 to 21 yr (19 lean/19 obese) underwent a 10-hour sodium [d3]-acetate intravenous infusion to determine the rate of appearance of acetate (Ra) in plasma before and after 20g of lactulose (per os). Pre- and post- Ra values were determined at a quasi-steady state. Compared to obese youth, lean showed a larger increase in Ra after colonic fermentation (P=0.001). Plasma FFA concentrations declined from 0 to 300 minutes (nadir), with a greater reduction in lean youth (P=0.042). Insulin, glucose, and C-peptide levels were lower at the end of the study than at baseline in both groups (all P 0.05). These data suggest that 1) obese youth either ferment lactulose to a lesser degree or experience a higher hepatic uptake of acetate; 2) acetate may cause a reduction in FFA during the fasting state that is more marked in lean youth; 3) acetate may be associated with changes in glucose metabolism, although herein, it is difficult to differentiate between the effect of acetate infusion and prolonged fasting. Disclosure B. Galuppo: None. G. Cline: None. M. A. Van name: None. C. Agazzi: None. C. L. Kien: None. N. Santoro: None. Funding National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (R01DK114504)

The effect of contact time of adsorbent made from palm oil mill boiler ash on crude palm oil quality

Indonesia as an agricultural country, produces agricultural products and their waste. To increase the utilization of agricultural waste, hence Palm Oil Mill Boiler Ash processed into an adsorbent. This research aimed to determine the effect of contact time on the quality adsorption process of crude palm oil using adsorbent from Palm Oil Mill Boiler Ash. The results showed that the optimum contact time at 60 minutes resulted in the largest reduction in free fatty acids by 2.99% with a decrease in the percentage of 21.43%. The minimum water content of crude palm oil was 0.26% with a decrease in the percentage of 18.75%. Meanwhile, the impurities obtained in crude palm oil are around 0.299% - 0.312%. This showed that the boiler ash adsorbent, originating from the Palm Oil Mill, which activated with H3PO4, is effective in reducing free fatty acids and water content in crude palm oil.

Isotherm adsorption of free fatty acid in waste cooking oil used activated carbon of banana peel as bio-adsorbent

The reduction of free fatty acids from the remaining cooking oil was successfully adsorbed by activated carbon from the banana peel biomass. The difference in activation temperature in making activated carbon causes it to adsorb free fatty acids, different from frying frozen fries in palm oil. The method used is adsorption with a batch system. The adsorbent used was biocarbon from banana peels, activated at 600, 650, and 700°C for 1 hour. Powdered activated carbon products were used in the adsorption process with a pass size of 200 mesh. Isotherm modeling with 1% activated carbon content in used cooking oil was carried out to determine the equilibrium constant in the Temkin, Langmuir, Freundlich, and Dubinin Radushkevich models. The suitability for adsorption of free fatty acids, which tends to approximate the Freundlich model. Adsorption of free fatty acids with activated carbon at 700°C effectively follows the Freundlich Isotherm Adsorption Model (R2 = 0.97) with physical adsorption energy, and the maximum capacity is 27.404 mg/g as seen from other isotherm models.

Free Fatty Acids Reduction in Waste Cooking Oil by Rhodosporidium toruloides and Simultaneous Carotenoids, Lipids, and PAL Enzyme Production in a Two‐Phase Culture System

AbstractWaste cooking oil (WCO) is a problematic waste product that contains free fatty acids (FFAs), preventing it from being valorized easily as biodiesel and poses an environmental hazard if incorrectly disposed. The use of WCO as a carbon source for Rhodosporidium toruloides (R. toruloides) using a two‐phase culture system is developed. The normal growth of R. toruloides when cultured in WCO (OD600 52) reveals its ability to use a hydrophobic substrate as the carbon source compared to glucose (OD600 51.9). Interestingly, the extracellular lipase activity when R. toruloides is grown on WCO is 14.4 U mL−1 compared to when grown on glucose (2.4 U mL−1). Additionally, FFA levels in WCO are reduced from 2% to 0.2% at end of fermentation, suggesting that R. toruloides can consume FFA. Furthermore, higher yield of beneficial products: β‐carotene (4.57 µg mL−1), torularhodin (4.2 µg mL−1), fatty acids (1 mg mL−1), and phenylalanine ammonia‐lyase (PAL) enzyme (0.12 µmol mg−1) are produced when WCO is the carbon source, compared to glucose (4.1 µg mL−1 β‐carotene, 3.0 µg mL−1 torularhodin, 1 mg mL−1 of fatty acids, and 0.096 µmol mg−1 PAL enzyme). This is a first study that shows R. toruloides can grow on hydrophobic carbon source.

Microwave stabilization and process optimization of rice bran cultivar Jhelum

This study was optimizing microwave stabilization process of rice bran obtained from freshly milled paddy (Jhelum variety) using response surface methodology. This study was conducted at different moisture contents (12%–30%), sample weight (5–250 g), and heating time (1–5 min) which were examined to determine their influence on dependent variables––free fatty acids (FFAs) and color coordinates. Regression analysis showed effective influence of microwave heating on all response variables studied. Stabilization treatments resulted in reduction of FFAs, prime indicator of lipase activity, indicating that hydrolytic rancidity could be prevented thereby making it fit for human consumption and food applications. The optimum conditions obtained for microwave stabilization were found to be 16% sample moisture, 100 g sample weight, and 4 min microwave heating time. Proximate analysis showed that crude fat and crude fiber contents reduced while crude protein and ash contents increased after microwave heat treatment in rice bran. Practical applications Rice bran has the ability to be used as a food ingredient and oil source to satisfy the growing oil demands. However, the individual cells are disturbed and the inherent lipase enzyme comes into contact with fat during milling process while extracting bran layer from endosperm. This causes hydrolysis of fats to free fatty acids (FFAs) and glycerol leading to the development of hydrolytic rancidity which is responsible for off-flavor development during storage. The rate of oil degradation and FFA formation can be very high (about 5%–7% per day and 70% in a month) under favorable conditions. Bran oil with an excess of 10% FFA is unfit for human consumption. Now-a-days efforts are being made to stabilize the rice bran using stabilization techniques in order to improve its utilization in food. The microwave stabilization technique seems to be a wiser approach to widen the utilization of rice bran in food industry.

Optimization of Waste Cooking Oil’s FFA as Biodiesel Feedstock

Waste cooking oil has high Free Fatty Acid (FFA). It affected on decreasing a biodiesel production. FFA reduction is one of important processes in biodiesel production from waste cooking oil. Thus, this study aimed to examine the optimum condition in FFA reduction. The process is assisted by using ultrasonic irradiation on acid esterification. Variables of the process are acid concentration, molar ratio of methanol and oil, and irradiation time. Meanwhile temperature irradiation on 45oC is a control variable. Process optimization is conducted by Response Surface Methodology (RSM) with Central Composite Design (CCD). The optimum conditions of response were 7.22:1 (methanol to oil molar ratio), 0.92% wt H2SO4, 26.04 minutes (irradiation time), and 45oC (irradiation temperature). Ultrasonic system reduced FFA significantly compared to conventional method.

Highly Efficient Deacidification Process for Camelina sativa Crude Oil by Molecular Distillation

Recovery and reuse of high-acidity vegetable oil waste (higher content of free fatty acids) is a major concern for reducing their effect on the environment. Moreover, the conventional deacidification processes are known to show drawbacks, such as oil losses or higher costs of wastewater treatment, for which it requires great attention, especially at the industrial scale. This work presents the design of a highly efficient and sustainable process for Camelina sativa oil deacidification by using an ecofriendly method, namely molecular distillation. Experimental studies were performed to identify operating conditions for removing of free fatty acids (FFA) by molecular distillation which involves the oil evaporation in high vacuum conditions. The experimental studies were supported by statistical analysis and technical-economic analysis. Response surface methodology (RSM) was employed to formulate and validate second-order models to predict deacidification efficiency, FFA concentration, and triacylglyceride (TAG) concentration in deodorized oil based on three parameters effects, validated by statistical p-value < 0.05. For a desirability function value of 0.9826, the optimal parameters of evaporator temperature at 173.5 °C, wiper speed at 350 rpm, and feed flowrate at 2 mL/min were selected. The results for process design at optimal conditions (using conventional and molecular distillation methods) showed an efficiency over 92%, a significant reduction in FFA (up to 1%), and an increase in TAG (up to 93%) in refined oil for both methods. From an economical point of view, the deacidification by molecular distillation of Camelina sativa oil is a sustainable process: no wastewater generation, no solvents and water consumption, and lower production costs, obtaining a valuable by-product (FFA).

Reduction of Free Fatty Acid in Low Free Fatty Acid of Mixed Crude Palm Oil (LMCPO): Optimization of Esterification Parameters

The objective of this research was to study the optimum condition of esterified oil production from low free fatty acid of mixed crude palm oil (LMCPO) by using a response surface methodology (RSM) with esterification reaction in a batch mode. LMCPO obtained from a vacuum refining process of mixed crude palm oil (MCPO) to extract the partial FFA in oil which was used as a raw materials in a food production. Therefore, remaining FFA of 6.170 wt.% in LMCPO should be reduced to less than 1 wt.% by using esterification when required these oils to use as feedstock for producing biodiesel. After esterification process, FFA in esterified oil was studied to optimize the four independent variables of methanol (5-25 vol.%), sulfuric acid (0.5-4.5 vol.%), reaction time (5-65 min) and speed of stirrer (100-500 rpm). The results showed that the optimal condition of 25 vol.% methanol, 2 vol.% sulfuric acid, 500 rpm speed of stirrer, and 30 min reaction time at 60°C reaction temperature can decreased the FFA level to less than 0.212 wt.%. However, it was found out that the high consumptions of methanol and sulfuric acid required for reducing FFA to lowest value. Thus, the selected condition of 17.4% methanol, 1.6% sulfuric acid, 300 rpm speed of stirrer, and 35 min reaction time was chosen to save the chemical contents because this condition achieved to reduce FFA to acceptable level of 1 wt.%. For the actual experiment, FFA can be decreased to 0.212 wt.%, and 1.028 wt.% respectively. The yields of 96.67 wt.% for crude esterified oil and 94.22 wt.% for pure esterified oil were achieved based on LMCPO under the selected condition.

Kinetic study of adsorption carboxylic acids of used cooking oil using mesoporous active carbon

This study investigates the reduction of free fatty acids from the problem of used cooking oil in the food industry with bio-waste adsorbents such as banana peels—experimental conditions at the activation temperature of making activated carbon. Adsorption kinetics and temperature of activated effects were studied. Bio-char activated at 600, 650, and 700°C. The used cooking oil and activated carbon were analyzed using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, transmission electron microscopy, X-ray energy-dispersive, and BET analysis. Activated carbon has a surface area of 548 m2/g, with an average pore diameter of 35 nm (range of mesophore). As a result, bio-char activated at 700°C is best presented by a linear pseudo-second-order kinetic model suitable for describing the adsorption kinetic. The maximum adsorption capacity was 62 mg/g at 303 K. Carboxylic groups as free fatty acid was removed from used cooking oil used surface of activated carbon. Models best described the experimental data as with the higher values of the correlation coefficient (R2). The results of this study prove that the banana peel bio-waste ingredient, which is food waste, is a potential adsorbent to reduce free fatty acid levels to the standard of 0.3

The Monoacylglycerol Lipase Inhibitor JZL184 Inhibits Lung Cancer Cell Invasion and Metastasis via the CB1 Cannabinoid Receptor.

A targeted modulation of the endocannabinoid system is currently discussed as a promising strategy for cancer treatment. An important enzyme for the endocannabinoid metabolism is the monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL), which catalyzes the degradation of 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) to glycerol and free fatty acids. In this study, we investigated the influence of MAGL inhibition on lung cancer cell invasion and metastasis. Using LC-MS, significantly increased 2-AG levels were detected in A549 cells treated with the MAGL inhibitor JZL184. In athymic nude mice, JZL184 suppressed metastasis of A549 cells in a dose-dependent manner, whereby the antimetastatic effect was cancelled by the CB1 receptor antagonist AM-251. In vitro, JZL184 induced a time- and concentration-dependent reduction of A549 cell invasion through Matrigel-coated membranes, which was likewise reversed by AM-251. An MAGL inhibition-associated reduction of free fatty acids as a cause of the anti-invasive effect could be excluded by add-back experiments with palmitic acid. Both JZL184 and the MAGL substrate 2-AG led to an increased formation of the tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-1 (TIMP-1), whereby a TIMP-1 knockdown using siRNA significantly attenuated the anti-invasive effects of both substances. Decreased invasion and TIMP-1 upregulation was also caused by the MAGL inhibitors JW651 and MJN110 or transfection with MAGL siRNA. A CB1- and TIMP-1-dependent anti-invasive effect was further confirmed for JZL184 in H358 lung cancer cells. In conclusion, MAGL inhibition led to a CB1-dependent decrease in human lung cancer cell invasion and metastasis via inhibition of 2-AG degradation, with TIMP-1 identified as a mediator of the anti-invasive effect.

Aplikasi Karbon Aktif dari Cangkang Kelapa Sawit Sebagai Adsorben pada Minyak Jelantah Bahan Sabun

Standart soap quality in SNI 06-3532-1994 is a max water content of 15%, max free fatty acids 2.5% of the number of soaps 196-206 mg/gr in addition there are quality parameters that are not included in the SNI is many foams. Meanwhile, some industrial companies in Indonesia attract consumers with a lot of foam produced by the company's products.The purpose of this study is to discuss the effect of the size of the active carbon particles of palm shells on the reduction of free fatty acids in jelantah oil as the manufacture of soap raw materials and soap quality. determination of Free Fatty Acids using AOCS Ca 5a-40-1997 method, testing moisture content using SNI method 06-3532-1994, The number of hoardings uses the volumetric method. The results of this study showed that particle sizes of 100 mesh and 120 mesh occurred significant differences in the decline of free fatty acids. Where the particle size of 120 mesh is stronger absorbency in lowering Free Fatty Acids. this is because materials with smaller diameters have a greater absorption rate. This is related to the surface area of the activated carbon adsorbent of the palm shell that is available to interact with the substance contained in the solution. But there is no significant difference in the quality of soap, namely; Water Rate, Lots of Foam, Number of Hoarding.

Modeling of Glycerolysis Kinetic of Free Fatty Acid in Crude Palm Oil

Kinetics describing chemical glycerolysis reaction of free fatty acid (FFA) in crude palm oil (CPO) with crude glycerol has been investigated. In this study, the kinetics was explored under the conventional procedure using KOH as a homogenous catalyst. The FFA value was measured by the acid-base titration technique. The effect of FFA to glycerol molar ratio and reaction temperature are examined to determine the best condition for FFA reduction. The glycerolysis achieved a maximum FFA reduction from 6.15% to 0.28% under the following conditions: FFA to glycerol molar ratio of 1:4 and 75°C temperature. Under these conditions, the total reaction orders and the reaction rate constant of glycerolysis were determined by establishing six kinetic models. It was found that the highest R2 was 0.89, which was presented from model 5 (α=2, β=0): ^j = kCAOt. The calculated rate constant, activation energy, and pre-exponential factor were’ 6^5608 L mol-1 min−1, 9,432 cal mol-1, and 5.4x106 L mol-1 min−1, respectively.

Mathematical Modeling and Optimization Studies by Artificial Neural Network, Genetic Algorithm and Response Surface Methodology: A Case of Ferric Sulfate–Catalyzed Esterification of Neem (Azadirachta indica) Seed Oil

High free fatty acids (FFA) content in oils poses challenges such as soap formation and difficulty in the separation of by-products in direct transesterification of oil to biodiesel, which is of environmental concern and also increases the cost of production. Thus, in this study, the ferric sulfate-catalyzed esterification of neem seed oil (NSO) with an FFA of 5.84% was investigated to reduce it to the recommended level of ≤1%. The esterification process for the NSO was modeled using response surface methodology (RSM) and artificial neural network (ANN). The effect of the pertinent process input variablesviz.methanol/NSO molar ratio (10:1–30:1), ferric sulfate dosage (2–6 wt%), and reaction time (30–90 min) and their interactions on the reduction of the FFA of the NSO, were examined using Box Behnken design. The optimal condition for the process for reducing the FFA content of the oil was established using RSM and ANN-genetic algorithm (ANN-GA). The results showed that the models developed described the process accurately with the coefficient of determination (R2) of 0.9656 and 0.9908 and the mean relative percent deviation (MRPD) of 6.5 and 2.9% for RSM and ANN, respectively. The ANN-GA established the optimum reduction of FFA of 0.58% with methanol/NSO molar ratio of 18.51, ferric sulfate dosage of 6 wt%, and reaction time of 62.8 min as against the corresponding values of 0.62% FFA, 23.5, 5.03, and 75 min established by the RSM. Based on the statistics considered in the study, ANN and GA outperformed RSM in modeling and optimization of the NSO esterification process.

A Comparison of Palm Fatty Acid Distillate (PFAD) Esterification using Sulphated Alumina versus Sulphuric Acid Catalyst

The selection of raw materials is the cost-wise strategy for biodiesel to compete with diesel. The raw material used in the second generation of biodiesel production is non-edible oil which contains high free fatty acids (FFA). Palm Fatty Acid Distillate (PFAD); the by-product of crude palm oil (CPO) industry has a high potential as the amount is abundant in Indonesia. The objective of this study is to compare the catalytic activity of esterification reaction using self-synthesized sulphated alumina and a sulphuric acid catalyst against the reduction of FFA. The reaction was carried out in a three-necked flask, at a temperature of 60°C, 7 hours of reaction time and rotation speed of 400 rpm. The results showed that the maximum FFA conversion of PFAD esterification reactions over sulphated alumina was 84%, achieved at methanol to oil ratio of 1.7 (v/v), catalyst to PFAD ratio of 12 % (w/w) and reaction time of 7 hours. Meanwhile, the optimum conditions for PFAD esterification usingsulphuric acid catalyst are methanol to oil volume ratio of 1.5; catalyst to PFAD ratio of 7.4 wt.% and 3 hours of reaction time. 99.34% of FFA conversion was achieved with the homogeneous catalyst.

Effects of enzymatic free fatty acid reduction process on the composition and phytochemicals of rice bran oil

The effects of enzymatic free fatty acid reduction process (EFFARP) on the composition and phytochemicals of dewaxed and degummed rice bran oil (DDRBO) were investigated and compared with the effects observed using internal acyl acceptors. The acid value of DDRBO was effectively decreased from 16.99 mg KOH/g to approximately 0.36 mg KOH/g by EFFARP. EFFARP significantly decreased the moisture content and peroxide value of DDRBO and increased the induction period. The Sn-2 fatty acid comoposition of DDRBO after EFFARP was very reaching the total fatty acid composition. EFFARP significantly increased the triacylglycerol content compared to the control, while the oryzanol content was not obviously affected. The contents of free sterol, and total tocopherol and tocotrienol were increased slightly by EFFARP compared to the control. When conducted under vacuum with added nitrogen, EFFARP shows great application potential in the edible oil industry.

Waste-Cooking-Oil Free Fatty Acid Reduction Using Deep Eutectic Solvent as Raw Material of Biodiesel

The purpose of this study was to extract the free fatty acid (FFA) of waste-cooking-oil through liquid-to-liquid extraction using choline chloride as a raw material for Deep Eutectic Solvent (DES) as a waste-cooking-oil purifier. Waste-cooking-oil is obtained from the waste of a fast food factory located in Sukarame, South Sumatera. Making a Dep Eutectic Solvent (DES) using compounds of ethylene glycol as Hydrogen Bond Donor mixed with a choline chloride Hydrogen Bond Acceptor with five molar ratios, a reaction temperature of 60 °C and a stirring speed of 150 rpm and 200 rpm for 90 minutes. The extraction molar ratio of waste-cooking-oil and DES with four ratios of molar ratios, extraction time of 2 hours at 60 °C and retention time of separation between DES and used cooking oil was 24 hours. The decrease in FFA of waste-cooking-oil was the highest at 83.87% in the DES 2. It proves that DES is able to purify waste-cooking-oil by extraction methods to reduce FFA and adsorb other materials

Synthesis and performance assessment of coconut fiber solid adsorbent for waste cooking oil purification as biodiesel feedstock

Waste cooking oil can be considered as an alternative biodiesel feedstock for replacing edible oils. However, this feedstock can not be directly used since it contains much impurities and high Free Fatty Acid (FFA) content. Thus, pre-treatment process is required to enhance the feedstock quality. Adsorption using activated carbon is one of various methods that can be applied to reduce FFA content which is relatively easy and cheap. Coconut fiber is biomass waste that can be utilized in activated carbon production. This work has successfully synthesized activated carbon from coconut fiber with activator medium of H3PO4 10% weight and carbonization temperature of 600 °C, indicated from yield, water content, ash content, and methylene blue adsorption capacity. The yield of carbonization process developed in this work reached 40% while the yield for water content, ash content, and methylene blue adsorption capacity were 2.5%, 2.3% and 1646.1 mg/g carbon, respectively which complied with SNI 06-3730-1995. This adsorbent was tested on fixed bed adsorption column with FFA reduction reached up to 93% at waste cooking oil flowrate of 3 ml/min for 45 minutes operation time.

Activated Kaolin Minerals as Bleaching Clays for Prolonging the Useful Life of Palm Oil in Industrial Frying Operations

AbstractDuring frying operations, vegetable oils break down and compounds with undesirable flavors are produced. Various procedures have been developed to extend the useful life of frying oils, including treatment with bleaching clays. In this article, we describe the activation of kaolin minerals by a combination of grinding and chemical treatments, and report their performance in removing breakdown products generated in palm oil that had been used for 20 hours continuous frying. There was little influence of the original kaolin mineral form on the ability to reduce the free fatty acid (FFA) contents, and grinding only changed FFA reduction from ∼32% to ∼36%. However, much greater FFA reductions were obtained after chemical treatment of the ground clays, and the best performing kaolin product gave similar FFA reduction to a commercial bleaching clay (∼76% and ∼77%, respectively). This activated kaolin also produced a reduction in viscosity at 40 °C from ∼73 to 48.4 cSt (compared to 45.5 cSt in the unused oil), and in the peroxide value from 30.0 to 22.0 meq/kg (compared to 10.0 meq/kg in the initial oil). Thus, activated kaolin samples represent a cheap and convenient alternative to conventional bleaching clay for improving common quality parameters in used palm oil, although we also found that the optimum kaolin preparation conditions were different from those that have been reported for raw rice bran oil refining.

Reduction of FFA in Kapok Randu (Ceiba pentandra) Seed Oil via Esterification Reaction Using Sulfuric Acid Catalyst: Experimental and Kinetics Study

The rapid growth of the population and economy has boosted up the necessity of fuel and energy source. Until now, the world’s dependency on fossil fuel as the primary energy supply is still high. On the other hand, it has been known that the fossil-based oil and gas reserves are shrunk. Hence, it is urgent to develop alternative energy sources, which are renewable and environmentally friendly, to anticipate the energy insufficiency. Biodiesel is among the prospective renewable energy due to its advantages. Biodiesel (fatty acid methyl esters) is a type of biofuel which is derived from vegetable oil or animal fat. There are various vegetable oils that can be used as raw material for biodiesel production. However, non-edible oils are usually preferred to be selected as a biodiesel feedstock to evade the conflict between food and energy needs. Kapok Randu (Ceiba pentandra) seed oil is a type of non-edible oil which is cheap and can be employed as biodiesel feedstock. However, this oil has high free fatty acid (FFA) content (8.89%). Thus, it cannot directly undergo transesterification reaction to produce biodiesel since the FFA will react with alkaline catalyst to produce soap. The FFA content in Kapok Randu seed oil needs to be decreased until it is lower than 2%. Hence, prior to transesterification reaction, esterification of Kapok Randu seed oil with methanol in the presence of acid catalyst should be conducted to decrease the FFA content. In this work, esterification reaction was performed in the presence of sulfuric acid catalyst. The reactions were conducted at the molar ratio of oil to methanol of 1:12 at the temperature of 40, 50, and 60 ℃ for 120 minutes. The optimum reaction conversion was 95.14%, achieved at the reaction temperature of 60 ℃. Kinetics study using homogeneous models was also performed. It was revealed that the reaction was appropriate with the irreversible second order reaction model. The reaction rate constant (k), activation energy (Ea), and frequency factor (A) were 4.95 L / mole.min, 30,799.21 J/ mole and 338.744 / min, respectively.

Esterification of Free Fatty Acids with Glycerol within the Biodiesel Production Framework

Companies in the field of the collection and treatment of waste cooking oils (WCO) for subsequent biodiesel production usually have to cope with high acidity oils, which cannot be directly transformed into fatty acid methyl esters due to soap production. Since glycerine is the main byproduct of biodiesel production, these high acidity oils could be esterified with the glycerine surplus to transform the free fatty acids (FFA) into triglycerides before performing the transesterification. In this work, commercial glycerol was esterified with commercial fatty acids and commercial fatty acid/lampante olive oil mixtures over tin (II) chloride. In the first set of experiments, the esterification of linoleic acid with glycerol excess from 20 to 80% molar over the stoichiometric was performed. From 20% glycerol excess, there was no improvement in FFA reduction. Using 20% glycerol excess, the performance of a biochar obtained from heavy metal-contaminated plant roots was compared to that of SnCl2. Then, the effect of the initial FFA content was assessed using different oleic acid/lampante olive oil mixtures. The results illustrated that glycerolysis was impeded at initial FFA contents lower than 10%. Finally, the glycerolysis of a WCO with 9.94% FFA was assayed, without success.