Reduce Car Use Research Articles

Commuting to college: The effectiveness and social efficiency of transportation demand management policies

Commuting is the single largest impact a University has on the environment and represents a noticeable share of urban traffic, when the University is located within a city. There is a large amount of literature on which policies could reduce car use and improve the environmental and social sustainability of commuting to college. However, most studies focus, to the best of our knowledge, only on the effectiveness of such policies, disregarding their social efficiency, measured as the difference between the social costs and benefits. This paper presents an estimate of the effectiveness and the efficiency of nine hypothetical transport policies regarding the University of Trieste, Italy, on the basis of a transport demand model estimated via revealed and stated choice data. All policies but one are effective in reducing car use, but only six of them appear to be efficient. We find that fully subsidizing bus fares would be the most effective and efficient policy. However, it is doubtful whether fully subsidizing bus fares is financially sustainable. The second best policy would be a mix of bus subsidies and parking restrictions. In case of the University of Trieste, our model suggests the adoption of a policy mix based on a relatively low hourly parking tariff (€0.3 per hour) and the use of the parking revenues to subsidize the bus users. The methodology and the results presented in this paper can be used by the college Mobility Managers to design better transport policies.

Concern or apathy: the attitude of the public toward urban air pollution

It is important to understand public attitudes when designing policy instruments to motivate actions. Attitude is partially socially constructed and thus must be studied locally rather than inferred from other settings. This study explored public attitudes toward air pollution among Beijing residents through interviews and thematic analysis. In contrast to previous studies mostly focusing on a certain dimension of attitudes, we attempted to show an initial picture of attitudes in three dimensions, knowledge and belief, perception and concern, and covert and overt behaviors, and identify underlying factors accounting for such attitudes. The results showed that the interviewees largely knew the sources and impacts of air pollution but also demonstrated misunderstandings; half of them perceived air pollution as ‘severe’ and three-fourths of them showed little concern about air pollution; their protective and mitigation responsive behaviors were inadequate. Factors affecting such attitudes, both existing and missing in current literature, were identified. Perceived air pollution is determined by sensory cues and imagination, and mediated by lived experiences and place identity. Lack of concern about air pollution can largely be explained by a feeling of uncontrollability and the crowding effect in competing for attention. This lack is further influenced by the perceived benefits of living in large cities, perceived fairness of the impact across the population, and perceived delay of the health impacts posed by air pollution. Protective behaviors, specifically wearing facemasks, are influenced by perceived severity, vulnerability, efficacy, and barriers. Mitigation behavior, which refers to reducing car use in this case, is discouraged by a lack of feeling responsible and by perceived inconvenience and ineffectiveness. At an academic level, the results of this exploratory study are expected to provide a base for further investigations of factors affecting public attitudes. From a policy perspective, the results should provide information for designing policy instruments to raise awareness and motivate actions to cope with air pollution.

Effect of travel behaviour change programmes on time allocated to driving

Since part of car dependency is stemmed from personal choices of car over other modes of transportation, technological solutions are not the only way to reduce car use. Travel Behaviour Change Programmes (TBCP) are significantly cheaper transportation policy measures, which have evolved in order to shift people voluntarily out of their cars and into public transportation or non-polluting modes of travel, such as walking or cycling. Recently, a two-wave activity scheduling process panel survey was conducted over a period of two years in the city of Valencia (Spain). Part of the respondents received a set of TBCP between both survey waves. We have used doubled censored Tobit models to assess the effect of the TBCP on time allocation to driving a car or a motorbike. Results show that participation in the TBCP is significantly positive to reduce car or motorbike use, and its effectiveness is affected by different socio-economic factors.

Use of a novel dataset to explore spatial and social variations in car type, size, usage and emissions

The ’MOT’ vehicle inspection test record dataset recently released by the UK Department for Transport (DfT) provides the ability to estimate annual mileage figures for every individual light duty vehicle greater than 3 years old within Great Britain. Vehicle age, engine size and fuel type are also provided in the dataset and these allow further estimates to be made of fuel consumption, energy use, and per vehicle emissions of both air pollutants and greenhouse gases. The use of this data permits the adoption of a new vehicle-centred approach to assessing emissions and energy use in comparison to previous road-flow and national fuel consumption based approaches. The dataset also allows a spatial attribution of each vehicle to a postcode area, through the reported location of relevant vehicle testing stations. Consequently, this new vehicle data can be linked with socio-demographic data in order to determine the potential characteristics of vehicle owners.This paper provides a broad overview of the types of analyses that are made possible by these data, with a particular focus on distance driven and pollutant emissions. The intention is to demonstrate the very broad potential for this data, and to highlight where more focused analysis could be useful. The findings from the work have important implications for understanding the distributional impacts of transport related policies and targeting messaging and interventions for the reduction of car use.

Dependence of Parking Pricing on Land Use and Time of Day

A key strategy of sustainable transportation, parking pricing can directly contribute to decreased greenhouse gas emissions and air pollution. This paper describes an optimal structure of parking rates in terms of parking locations and time of day. A two-level parking model based on game theory is established using parking survey data collected in Beijing in 2014. The model was estimated based on Stackelberg game and the Nash equilibrium. Using the two-level parking model, the optimal structure of parking rates for inside/outside business zones and during peak/off-peak hours was calculated. In addition, the relationship between the government (which represents the public benefit) and car users, as well as the relationships among car users in the parking system were investigated. The results indicate that equilibrium among all of the agents in the parking system can be obtained using the proposed parking rate structure. The findings provide a better understanding of parking behavior, and the two-level parking model presented in the paper can be used to determine the optimal parking rate to balance the temporal and spatial distribution of parking demand in urban areas. This research helps reduce car use and the parking-related cruising time and thus contributes to the reduction of carbon emissions and air pollution.

A09 Health and economic benefits of active transport policies in Barcelona

Background Since the first Road Safety Plan was approved in Barcelona in 2000, other plans followed and were integrated into the overall mobility plans of the city. Actions stimulating active transportation included increasing pedestrian priority areas, implementation of zones 30, audits of crosswalks, bike lanes, public bicycle program, reduction of car use by limiting parking for residents, increasing public transport, etc. This paper aims to estimate the health and economic benefits of these policies that promoted walking and cycling. Methods We conducted a pre-post evaluation study, comparing walking and cycling trips in 2009 to 2013. We used the HEAT (Health Economic Assessment Tool) developed by WHO. The study population are persons older than 14 who made a trip walking or cycling in Barcelona city during the period of study. Data on the number of trips walking or cycling and the duration of the trips were obtained from the annual daily travel survey carried out in Barcelona (EMEF). It collects information on all trips carried out on the previous working day. We used the value of statistical life provided by HEAT for Spain: 3.203.000€. We estimated the number of deaths per year that were prevented due to changes in the level of walking and cycling from 2009 to 2013 and the economic benefit resulting from prevented deaths. Results The number of people reporting walking for travel increased from 783,518 in 2009 to 862,021 in 2013: This gives an increase in average daily time spent walking per person from 47.5 min to 49.6 min per day. Taking this into account, 86.1 deaths per year are prevented by this change in walking. The current value of the average annual benefit averaged across 5 years of this level of walking is: 47.355 million €. The number of people reporting cycling for travel the day before increased from 40,430 in 2009 to 60,274 in 2013: The average daily time spent cycling per person was 51,8 min in 2009 and 49,8 min in 2013. Taking this into account, 8,2 deaths per year are prevented by this change in cycling. The current value of the average annual benefit averaged across 5 years of this level of cycling is: 4.492 million €. Conclusions Changes in transport policies in Barcelona city, which promoted active transportation, produced a clear impact on health benefits related to physical activity. Language: en

Policy packages and state engagement: Comparing car-use reduction policy in two Norwegian cities

Policy packages are structures used to combine different policy measures and address multiple objectives. This paper links local-level policy packaging with national authorities’ environmental strategies. Applying a multilevel-governance perspective, it examines how state engagement influences the integration of car-use reduction strategies in local policy packages. Two policy packages are empirically compared, one from the larger Norwegian city of Trondheim and one from the mid-sized city of Bodø. While both policy packages reveal ambivalence in whether to facilitate or restrict car usage, the strategies employed in Trondheim to mitigate the effects of road building are stronger than those used in Bodø. In Trondheim, more resources are used for climate-friendly transport and stronger regulation is applied to integrate land-use and transport policy. In explaining this, different levels of state engagement are emphasised. The study reveals how, both financially and in the building of institutional capacity, the approach of national authorities prioritises the larger city.

Key factors to explain recycling, car use and environmentally responsible purchase behaviors: A comparative perspective

This study proposes a multidimensional approach to promoting pro-environmental behaviors. Specifically, the model proposed examines the impact of: (a) environmental attitudes and beliefs, (b) certain socio-demographic factors, (c) economic characteristics and d) environmental sensitivity variables in the development of three environmentally responsible behaviors: purchase, recycling and reducing car use. The data are provided by a survey carried out in 2012 by the Centre for Sociological Research in Spain. Overall, the results show, in the first place, the importance of activism, environmental attitudes and beliefs, and the interest for environmental information to explain the development of the three pro-environmental behaviors. Second, they reveal that demographic and economic characteristics, such as age, educational level or place of residence, have less relevance in this decision process. From a comparative perspective, their effects differ little according to the particular behavior analyzed. Finally, the results reveal the importance of constructing complex models including situational and psychological factors when it comes to analyzing pro-environmental behavior.

Urban entrepreneurialism and car-use reduction

Local decision-makers face a wide range of pressures over questions of urban development. Among these is to pursue urban economic growth, while simultaneously responding to environmental demands to reduce car usage. There is, however, a lack of empirical studies analysing urban entrepreneurialism in conjunction with car-use reduction. This paper focuses on city-centre development and regulation of retail trade in two Norwegian cities. The underlying logic is that while compact city development and concentration of commerce in the urban core are ways to reduce car usage, there are also pressures drawing shopping to the city outskirts. The paper highlights the conflicting spatial interests involved in policies for car-use reduction, as evident in discussions as to how to regulate parking throughout the urban area. The paper also shows how municipal policy for car-use reduction is affected by private actors and neighbouring municipalities. Ultimately, the cases illustrate how local decision-making is influenced by the balance of pressures for and against environmental policy. In this way, analysis of inter-municipal competition over retail trade, inhabitants and investments, provides important insights into urban policy and practice.

Implementing Mobility as a Service

This paper presents insights from a six-month field operational test (FOT) in Gothenburg, Sweden, during which 195 participants tested the UbiGo mobility service for everyday travel. The service integrated both public and private solutions into a new type of collective transport and thereby contributed to Swedish societal goals of a reduction of private car use and ownership. A triangulation approach to data sources and collection methods was adopted to identify matches and mismatches between the expectations and experiences of three stakeholder groups: users (FOT participants–customers), commercial actors (mobility broker and service providers), and society. Identified matches included the concept of a transportation smorgasbord, reduced private car ownership, and increased pretrip planning. Identified mismatches related to the greater than expected reduction in car use, the respective business models of the mobility broker and service providers, back-office administration, and the smartphone platform. Gaps included the infeasibility of some trips and the need for more carsharing sites. The FOT was successful, with 93% of participants satisfied with their travel and 97% wanting to continue using UbiGo. However, before a commercially viable mobility service can be created, the mismatches and gaps need to be resolved or at least deliberated. The conclusion is that to create integrated solutions, truly collective transport must involve close cooperation between public and private actors and the consideration of at least the three, sometimes conflicting, stakeholder perspectives. Furthermore, new business models are needed to address the challenges associated with future integrated urban mobility solutions.

Paving Over the Tracks: A Better Use of Britain's Railways?

There is strong evidence that allowing some commuter railways to be converted into busways would provide higher capacity at lower cost, reduce fares for passengers and cut subsidies from taxpayers. A related policy of phasing out government support for the railways could save around £6 billion a year. It is estimated that busway fares would be at least 40 per cent cheaper than current rail fares, while on longer journeys all passengers could expect to be seated. In combination with the existing road network, busways would facilitate fast and direct services into city centres from suburbs and villages not currently linked by rail, increasing the choice of routes and reducing overall journey times for many commuters. Express coaches on congestion-free infrastructure could match the train for speed except on the longest journeys, and would also deliver much more frequent services. For a given traffic volume, busways would typically require far less land than rail, both at terminals and along routes. The sale of surplus land would further enhance the commercial case for conversion. The environmental gains could be substantial. High-volume bus/coach transport would appear to be more energy efficient than rail when the full impact of operating the networks is compared. Lower fares and a greater number of direct routes could also reduce car use. In some locations, spare busway capacity could be sold to other road users, diverting traffic from congested urban streets and delivering further environmental benefits.

Bayesian Networks for Multimodal Mode Choice Behavior Modelling: A Case Study for the Cross Border Workers of Luxembourg

Reducing car use and promoting public transport in the cross border area of Luxembourg has become a priority for sustainable development of the Greater region. In this study, we analyze daily mobility mode choice behavior of these cross border workers, in particular, focusing on their multimodal mode choices (e.g. park and ride mode choice) and on their trip chaining behavior. A rule-based approach based on Bayesian networks is proposed to capture the non-linear effects of related determinants/constraints on individuals’ mode choice behavior. The result shows the propose Bayesian network has a competitive performance compared with classical discrete choice models with reasonable good corrected prediction rates.

Variations on Timing Decisions After Participating in Travel Behavior Change Programs

Travel Behavior Change Programs (TBCP) based on psychological principles of persuasions, were implemented to habitual drivers in Valencia (Spain) with the objective of convincing them to reduce car use. Participants in TBCP were selected from those involved in a two-wave activity scheduling process panel survey, which collected weekly pre-planned and executed activity-travel agendas. Actions included in TBCP were implemented between the two panel survey waves, so it is possible to analyze the effect of such actions comparing the way panelists involved in TBCP pre-planned and executed activities and travels in the second survey wave with panelists not involved in TBCP. It is argued that the influences of TBCP extends to the way people pre-plan and re-schedule activities and travels. The desire to reduce car use may drive them to modify the starting time of specific activities, facilitating to share a car or to use alternative transportation modes. In this paper, variations on timing decisions after participating in TBCP are studied. Participants in TBCP pre-planned and executed more morning activities and less night activities than non-participants. Demographic and socioeconomic factors and characteristics of activity and travel episodes are significant to explain those changes as well. Practical implications of the findings in terms of operational modeling and transportation policy are described.

Efficacy of behavioural interventions for transport behaviour change: systematic review, meta-analysis and intervention coding.

BackgroundReducing reliance on motorised transport and increasing use of more physically active modes of travel may offer an opportunity to address physical inactivity. This review evaluates the evidence for the effects of behavioural interventions to reduce car use for journeys made by adults and codes intervention development and content.MethodsThe review follows the procedure stated in the registration protocol published in the PROSPERO database (registration number CRD42011001797). Controlled studies evaluating behavioural interventions to reduce car use compared with no interventions or alternative interventions on outcome measures of transport behaviours taken in adult participants are included in this review. Searches were conducted on all records in Applied Social Sciences Index and s (ASSIA), Ovid Embase, Ovid Medline, Ovid PsycInfo, Scopus, Sociological s, Transportation Research Information Service (TRIS), Transportation Research International Documentation (TRID), and Web of Science databases. Peer reviewed publications in English language meeting the inclusion criteria are eligible. Methodological quality is assessed using the Cochrane Risk of Bias Tool. Interventions are categorised in terms of behavioural frameworks, theories and techniques.Results15 full text articles are included, representing 13 unique studies, with 4895 participants and 27 intervention arms. Risk of bias across the review is appraised as considerable due to the unclear methodological quality of individual studies. Heterogeneity of included studies is considerable. Meta-analyses reveal no significant effect on reduction of frequency of car use or on increasing the proportion of journeys by alternative, more active modes of transport. There is insufficient data relating to alternative outcomes such as distance and duration which may have important health implications. Interventions were top-down but could not be described as theory-based. Intervention efficacy was associated with the use of a combination of information provision and behavioural regulation techniques. There was a lack of consideration of opportunity for change and behaviour in context.ConclusionsThere is no evidence for the efficacy of existing behavioural interventions to reduce car trips included in this review. The evidence for efficacy of behavioural interventions to decrease distance and duration of car journeys is limited and inconclusive. Overall the evidence is highly heterogeneous and is at considerable risk of bias. Future research should investigate alternative behavioural interventions in high quality, controlled studies informed by existing evidence, theory, and viewers of potential users. Future intervention studies should increase scientific rigour, include objective outcome measures, and incorporate thorough evaluations as standard.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12966-014-0133-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Measuring the performance of urban public transport in relation to public policy objectives

Urban public transport is currently facing increasing difficulties to obtain funding. While the priority is given to sustainable mobility in cities, the development of the supply leads to increasing operating costs, but the receipts from customers is insufficient to cover the expenses. Taking the example of French cities, the article analyses the reasons of the explosion of deficits. As the design of the network is in France under the full responsibility of Transport Authorities, the growth of the supply is often driven by public policy objectives (accessibility to the city for disadvantaged people, reducing car use and CO2 emissions) rather than by the demand. Even if the patronage starts again increasing since 2000, the global performance of the network is not satisfying, as evidenced by the rather weak rate of utilisation (on average 4 trips per vehicule.km). Apart from the successful development of right-of-way systems (such as tramways), the extension of bus routes to lower density areas explains this mitigated result. It is suggested to develop a line-based performance measurement in order to favour an optimisation now essential to cope with public funding restrictions. Impact indicators are proposed and illustrated on the city of Montpellier.

Barriers and Motivations for Sustainable Travel Behaviour: Shah Alam residents’ Perspectives

This study revealed the barriers and motivations to using sustainable transportation for daily trips. A total of 384 respondents was selected for this survey, represented the 36 sections of Shah Alam. The reasons provided as barriers to cycling and walking are hot weather, surrounding safety factor, unsatisfactory cycling tracks and poor condition of pedestrian lanes. Among the reasons respondents are not motivated to use public transport are inefficient services and expensive fares. However, the majority stated that the increase in petrol prices and tolls would be key factors to reduce car use and more provision of public transport would encourage them to use public transport.

Transport priorities, risk perception and worry associated with mode use and preferences among Norwegian commuters

There is currently scant research on the role of transport priorities, risk perception and worry for travel mode use and preferences. The present study aims to examine these factors in relation to mode use and preferences among Norwegian commuters. A web-based survey was conducted in a randomly obtained representative sample of daily commuters in the extended greater Oslo area (n=690). The results showed that those who prioritized efficiency and flexibility tended to commute by car, while those who prioritized safety and comfort used public (e.g. metro, tram, and train) or active (e.g. walking and cycling) transport. In a free choice scenario, the respondents who prioritized flexibility reported a preference for using a car, whereas those who prioritized safety and comfort preferred public and active transport for their commuter travels. Risk perception of high impact events, such as terrorism and major accidents, as well as risk perception related to personal impact risks (theft, violence etc.) were related to car use on commuter travels. Transport-related worry exerted weak influences on mode use and preferences. Increased speed on rail transport and more frequent departures may be effective in reducing car use on commuter travels. Risk communication should focus on highlighting the low risk of experiencing security and safety issues in the public transport sector, and this message should be complemented by efforts to reduce the probability of negative events affecting public transport.

Associations of leisure-time sitting in cars with neighborhood walkability.

Too much sitting, including time spent sitting in cars, is associated with poor health outcomes. Identifying the built-environment attributes that may reduce vehicular sitting time can inform future initiatives linking the public health, urban design, and transportation sectors. Data collected in 2003-2004 from adult residents (n = 2521) of Adelaide, Australia were used. Logistic regression analyses examined associations of prolonged time spent sitting in cars during leisure time (30 min/day or more) with neighborhood walkability and its components (dwelling density; intersection density; land use mix; net retail area ratio). Lower overall walkability was significantly associated with a higher odds (OR = 1.43, 95% CI: 1.21-1.70) of spending prolonged time in cars. For analyses with walkability components, lower net retail area ratio, lower residential density, and lower intersection density were significantly associated with prolonged sitting in cars. This study found that residents of high walkable neighborhoods tended to spend less time sitting in cars. In particular, higher net retail area ratio, an indicator of tightly spaced commercial areas, was strongly associated with less time in cars. Policy and planning initiatives to reduce car use require further evidence, particularly on the influence of neighborhood retail areas.

Satisfaction with travel, goal achievement, and voluntary behavioral change

The potential effectiveness of soft policy measures aimed at reduced car use depends on how car users experience these. A common measure being implemented is a free monthly travel card valid for a limited period on public transport (PT). In this study, a total of 321 car commuters living in Värmland, Sweden were recruited into such a program. The goal was to use PT between home and work at least three times a week over a period of four weeks. Immediately after completion of the program, the participants answered a follow-up questionnaire. The Satisfaction with Travel Scale (STS) was used to measure their travel experiences. They were also asked to rate their goal achievement. A process model was used during the analyses. Regression analysis showed that the distance from home to the nearest bus stop had a significantly negative effect on the STS. The STS had a significantly positive effect on goal achievement. Both goal achievement and the STS had a significantly positive effect both on PT use and on future goals. This study shows that travel experiences and goal achievement are important for voluntary behavioral change.

Securing travel plans through the planning approvals process: A case study of practice from Victoria, Australia

Travel plans can be required for new developments through the land use planning and approvals process. They contain specific measures that can be implemented at a site to reduce car use and encourage the use of more sustainable transport modes. Travel plans have been used in various countries as a requirement of development approval, including the United States, United Kingdom and other parts of Europe. However, the scale of practice in Australia is largely unknown.Using a case study from the Australian state of Victoria, a survey of councils was undertaken to assess the scale of travel planning practice for new developments. Results showed that half of the councils had previously required a travel plan for a new development, with a total of around 100 travel plans secured through the planning process between 2010 and 2012 alone. Key issues facing councils include the lack of any state planning policy that is supportive of travel plans, difficulties with monitoring and enforcement, and general uncertainty regarding effectiveness. Some of these issues could be addressed through the preparation of travel planning guidance specific to new developments, comprehensive training, and changes to planning policy and enforcement practices.Future research is needed to contrast experience with other jurisdictions and to better understand the effectiveness of travel plans at new developments, both in terms of their process and outcomes.