Reduce Car Use Research Articles

A Large Scale, App-Based Behaviour Change Experiment Persuading Sustainable Mobility Patterns: Methods, Results and Lessons Learnt

The present urban transportation system, mostly tailored for cars, has long shown its limitations. In many urban areas, public transportation and soft mobility would be able to effectively satisfy many travel needs. However, they tend to be neglected, due to a deep-rooted car dependency. How can we encourage people to make sustainable mobility choices, reducing car use and the related CO 2 emissions and energy consumption? Taking advantage of the wide availability of smartphone devices, we designed GoEco!, a smartphone application exploiting automatic mobility tracking, eco-feedback, social comparison and gamification elements to persuade individual modal change. We tested the effectiveness of GoEco! in two regions of Switzerland (Cantons Ticino and Zurich), in a large-scale, one year long randomized controlled trial. Notwithstanding a large drop-out rate experienced throughout the experiment, GoEco! was observed to produce a statistically significant impact (a decrease in CO 2 emissions and energy consumption per kilometer) for systematic routes in highly car-dependent urban areas, such as the Canton Ticino. In Zurich, instead, where high quality public transport is already available, no statistically significant effects were found. In this paper we present the GoEco! experiment and discuss its results and the lessons learnt, highlighting practical difficulties in performing randomized controlled trials in the field of mobility and providing recommendations for future research.

The Influence of Attitudes towards Cycling and Walking on Travel Intentions and Actual Behavior

The design and implementation of effective transport policies to reduce car use in urban areas requires a deep comprehension of the factors that influence travel behavior. In this context, psychological factors play an important role in explaining travel-related decisions. The purpose of this paper is to present a study on the effects of cognitive, affective and behavioral attitudes towards the use of walking and cycling on both intentions and real use of cars, public transport, bicycles, and walking. The data used was obtained from an on-line survey carried out in 2017. Analyses included reliability and validity of the questionnaire, exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses, and structural equation models. Results indicate that cycling and walking are evaluated differently in terms of feelings of freedom, pleasure, and relaxation. Positive evaluation of elements related to past walking behavior are negatively associated to both the intention to walk and actual walking. Transport policies to encourage cycling should be different from those with the aim of promoting walking. Positive attitudes towards walking are not enough to increase real walking.

Interest into travel-related interventions among urban movers and non-movers

Movers are expected to be more open to travel behaviour change and corresponding interventions than non-movers due to weakened mobility habits. However, evidence is mixed, the role of relocation for travel behaviour (change) is not yet well understood, and the assumed openness to change has hardly been addressed systematically. This study focuses on how far relocation predicts individual interest into an intervention to motivate the use of alternative travel modes. We emphasize the theoretical argumentation and explore how to address this question empirically. We surveyed movers before their move (N = 186) and non-movers (N = 572), and offered them the chance to order a Mobility Package promoting public transport, cycling, and carsharing. Whether participants ordered a package, thus indicating a preactional stage of travel behaviour change, was regressed on relocation, current changes in life, mobility habit strength, consideration to reduce car use, and perceived destination accessibility. While changes in life and relocation did not predict interest, the interaction revealed a negative impact: Movers who reported that moving house was provoked by changes in their personal life were clearly less interested. Unexpectedly, mobility habit strength and enhanced consideration to reduce car use revealed no impact on interest, while perceived accessibility enhanced interest. We interpret that not relocation as such, but the experienced mobility relevance that derives from changed individual and structural conditions associated with residential relocation or changes in life might be a better indicator of interest. We suggest further research on the conceptualization, measurement and fertilization of mobility relevance during changing circumstances.

Comfort First! Vehicle-Sharing Systems in Urban Residential Areas: The Importance for Everyday Mobility and Reduction of Car Use among Pilot Users

The aim of this study is to explore to what extent a vehicle-sharing system (VSS) that includes electric bicycles and cars, connected to a block of apartments in a middle-sized city in Sweden, can cater for individuals’ everyday mobility needs and reduce the need to own a car. The study connects to two different research areas: the usage of VSS and mobility transitions through pilot projects. Our results show a reluctance to voluntarily sacrifice comfort regarding everyday energy use. Owning and using a private car is to a high degree interpreted as convenient. The results from this study suggest that a VSS has the potential to satisfy mobility needs for people living in urban areas. However, in order for it to be successful, both in terms of satisfying mobility needs as well as being regarded as an attractive alternative to private car ownership, we argue that reconfiguration of modal choice and accessibility on different sociotechnical levels is a necessity. Interventions such as satisfactory public transport and better infrastructure for cycling and walking are suggested, as well as stricter parking regulations, banning cars in certain areas and making car use and ownership more expensive. In other words, the deployment of both soft and hard measures in combination is necessary.

Exploring the impact of built environment on car use: does living near urban rail transit matter?

ABSTRACT Urban rail transit (URT) is often implemented in order to reduce car ownership and use. However, it is still unclear how the impacts of the built environment on car dependence differ in transit-oriented development (TOD) areas and non-TOD areas. Based on 2012 Changchun household travel survey data, this study aims to explore whether the relationships between the built environment and household vehicle kilometers traveled (VKT) vary between station and non-station areas by employing a multi-group structural equation model (SEM). The results suggest that the effects of the built environment on household VKT vary between station and non-station areas. Additionally, the results confirm the remarkable role that the built environment plays in influencing car ownership and use by revealing the direct, indiract and total effects. These findings provide a better understanding of the inherent mechanism by which URT moderates the impacts of the built environment on car ownership and use. It suggests that, for urban planners and policy makers, promoting compact land use strategies can have a positive effect on reducing car use, and URT implementation can effectively strengthen the effects.

Teaming up for sustainability: Promoting sustainable mobility behaviour through sports clubs in Switzerland

Individual behaviour plays an important role in sustainable transport, however, daily mobility habits are difficult to change. Collaborating with formal social groups such as sports clubs appears to be an effective strategy to motivate participation in behaviour change programmes. But there is a lack in empirical work that systematically compares targeting groups and targeting individuals in such efforts. This paper reports on a quasi-experiment in the field offering this comparison. It was implemented in a programme of a Swiss city motivating sportspeople to attend sports training sessions by bike instead of by car. The programme addressed sports teams (n = 187) and individuals exercising at gyms (n = 31). Surveying modes of transport before, during, directly after, and three months following the programme revealed that team members significantly reduced car use to training sessions during the programme. Social norms impacted team members’ decisions to travel by car less frequently. In contrast, individual participants’ car use to attend gym sessions was not affected by the programme. We conclude that formal social groups such as sports clubs are potentially effective multipliers and motivators for environment-friendly mobility programmes. More research is needed on how behavioural changes during the programme translate into long-term habitual changes.

Peak-Car Phenomenon Revisited for Urban Areas: Microdata Analysis of Household Travel Surveys from Five European Capital Cities

This study investigates the peak-car phenomenon for the five European capital regions of Berlin, Copenhagen, London, Paris, and Vienna. Household travel survey (HTS) microdata was harmonized for the five regions and transferred to one consistent database; all time-series date back at least 20 years. Developments in car use were found to be surprisingly similar despite the substantial differences between the regions in terms of size, governance structures, built environments, transport systems, and societal framework conditions. Car use peaked earliest in Paris in the early 1990s; followed by Berlin, London, and Vienna in the late 1990s; and lastly in Copenhagen in the late 2000s. Working persons and mandatory trips were found to be the most relevant person group and trip purpose for the observed peak-car developments, both with declining overall trip numbers and a modal shift toward non-car modes. Young working persons had the most significant decline with substantial cohort effects. People seem to carry forward their behavior adopted in early life-cycle stages as they age. The person groups of seniors and women both damped the peak-car effect. Shopping trips were the second most relevant trip purpose for car use: car use for this purpose was high and stable over time. This study has elaborated potentials for reducing car use in relation to person groups and trip purposes. Findings from this retrospective analysis could be used for purposefully shaping future transport systems.

Importance of motives, self-efficacy, social support and satisfaction with travel for behavior change during travel intervention programs

The present field study investigates the reduction of car use through a voluntary travel behavior intervention program that provides participants with temporary free public transportation. Three factors – self-efficacy, social support and satisfaction – have previously been shown to be important for behavior change during physical activity intervention programs. In travel behavior interventions, however, these factors have often been studied individually and less is known about their combined effects on travel behavior change. Furthermore, while motives for participating in travel behavior interventions have been frequently studied within travel behavior interventions research, there is a lack of studies investigating the influence of motives on travel behavior change. To better understand the importance of different motives as well as the importance of self-efficacy, social support, and satisfaction with travel on behavior change, a series of surveys were administered to 181 participants before, during, and after their participation in a voluntary travel behavior intervention. The results show that greater self-efficacy and social support during the intervention led to greater travel behavior change. These results indicate that in order to gain better results from travel behavior interventions, individuals should be helped to increase their travel-related self-efficacy, and significant others should be involved to provide social support. We discuss possible ways of accomplishing this.

Views on Public Transport and How Personal Experiences Can Contribute to a More Positive Attitude and Behavioural Change

To reduce car usage, several strategies are needed, one of which focuses on social psychological factors. The aim of this study was to predict and explain bus usage using the theory of planned behaviour and the transtheoretical model of change in a sample of 983 residents. The study also evaluated the effect of providing a group of regular car users (n = 34) with a free travel pass, to be used on busses and trains in the region. A regression analysis showed that the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) explained 26% of the variance in intention to use the bus, increasing to 59% when past behaviour was added. The use of the free travel pass resulted in a more positive attitude towards bus usage, with a large number having either changed or having started to change their behaviour. When the same people were contacted three months later, 50% still used public transport. The conclusion is that negative attitudes and travel habits can be altered by experience. Although, a reduction of car use can only be achieved if several measures are implemented that make car driving less attractive and sustainable modes of transport more attractive.

Effects of a Travel Behaviour Change Program on Sustainable Travel

The main objective of the present study is to analyse the effect of a Travel Behaviour Change Program (TBCP) based on health improvement actions, in relation to a potential for an increase in walking and cycling, with reference to particular groups of people defined according to sociodemographics. A TBCP consisting of three persuasion actions based on health improvements was planned and executed in Valencia (Spain). A two-wave panel survey was used to study the effects of taking part in the TBCP. The panel survey collected data related to activity-travel scheduling process before and after the execution of the TBCP. To study the influence of participating in the TBCP, respondents were separated into two groups: those directly implicated in the TBCP and those who were not involved in any action (CG), which were formed on the basis of sociodemographic similarity. We developed descriptive and explanatory analyses and predictive models, to study the effect of the TBCP with reference to particular groups of people defined according to sociodemographics. Results indicate that being involved in the TBCP affects more males than females, those who share their household and do not live with their parents during weekdays, those with lower car availability, those willing to reduce car use and students. Several implications for research and transport policy are derived from these results.

Estimating pro-environmental potential for the development of mobility-based informational intervention: a data-driven algorithm

Informational interventions are important to bring positive changes in attitudes and perception among individuals. In relation to the individual’s mobility behavior, habits, attitudes, and perceptions are difficult to change. Therefore, it is vital to identify relatively soft aspects of travel behavior with a potential to reduce the negative impacts of mobility on the environment and individual health. This paper provides a methodological framework and describes the development of a computational algorithm that helps to identify soft changes in the travel behavior. The algorithm is based on a variety of different data sources such as activity-travel diaries and related constraint information, meteorological conditions, bicycle and public transport supply data, and emissions and air pollutant concentrations data. A variety of rules that are part of the algorithm are derived from the transport modeling literature, where constraints and factors were examined for activity-travel decisions. Three major aspects of activity-travel behavior, such as reduced car use, cold start of car engines, and participation in non-mandatory outdoor activities are considered in assessing pro-environmental potential. The algorithm is applied to collected small datasets from citizens of Hasselt (Belgium), Bologna (Italy), and Guildford (UK). A significant replaceable potential for car trips within 3 km to cycling and car trips to public transport has been found. The replaceable potential of excessive cold starts and participation in non-mandatory outdoor activities were also found, to some extent, to bring positive changes in the environment. In future research, these identified potentials are reported back to individuals with their consequence as part of a mobility-based informational intervention.

“I’ll never stop driving my child to school”: on multimodal and monomodal car users

This study investigates the behavior of multimodal and monomodal car users in school trips using 1 week of travel information of 735 Iranian students between 7 and 9 years old. We develop a hybrid choice model (HCM) and contribute to the literature of school trips by: (1) exploring the effects of latent psychological factors including parental attitudes, environmental norms, preferences, and concerns on multimodality behavior, (2) mediating the role of each psychological factor as a latent variable between socioeconomic variables and modal groups in an HCM-framework, and (3) contrasting the multimodality behavior in school trips with other trip purposes discussed in transportation literature. The results show (1) unfavorable attitudes toward safety and environment are positively associated with multimodal and monomodal car use among schoolchildren, (2) latent factors play a mediating role between socioeconomic variables and modal groups. For instance, boys are negatively related to a weaker priority of safety in transport, which indirectly influences multimodality or monomodality, and (3) unlike previous multimodality studies, the age of schoolchildren, car availability, and access to public transit are not found significant predictors of multimodal car use in school trips. We also indicate that a longer travel distance is negatively related to multimodality. The findings highlight that interventions including providing contextual preconditions for walking facilities, increasing parental personal norms about reducing car use, and increasing the safety and security of walking routes could increase monomodal sustainable transport use.

“To support or not to support, that is the question”. Testing the VBN theory in predicting support for car use reduction policies in Russia

High use of motorized vehicles is a major cause of CO2 emissions, affecting the quality of the environment negatively. Employing policies that aim to reduce car use would be key to decrease transport-related emissions. However, such policies need to be accepted by the public to be successful. In the current paper, we examine whether support for car use reduction policies can be predicted by the Value-Belief-Norm theory (VBN; Stern, 2000), reflecting a process of value triggered norm-activation about reducing one’s car use. Notably, we tested the VBN theory in Russia, which is a post-socialist country with a high car use and high transport-related CO2 emissions. As expected, findings indicate that high endorsement of biospheric values is associated with high environmental concern, which is related to an increased awareness of environmental consequences of car use, and a high ascription of responsibility of one’s own contribution to environmental problems related to car use. This process leads to strengthening personal norms to reduce own car use, which were associated with higher acceptability of car use reduction policies. The findings indicate that policies that aim at increased support for car use reduction in Russia could target biospheric values and activate personal norms.

The effectiveness of parking policies to reduce parking demand pressure and car use

Evaluating the effectiveness of parking policies to relieve parking demand pressure in central areas and to reduce car use requires an investigation of traveler responses to different parking attributes, including the money and time costs associated with parking. Existing parking studies on this topic are inadequate in two ways. First, few studies have modeled parking choice and mode choice simultaneously, thus ignoring the interaction between these two choice realms. Second, existing studies of travel choice behavior have largely focused on the money cost of parking while giving less attention to non-price-related variables such as parking search time and egress time from parking lot to destination. To address these issues, this paper calibrates a joint model of travel mode and parking location choice, using revealed-preference survey data on commuters to the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, a large university campus. Key policy variables examined include parking cost, parking search time, and egress time. A comparison of elasticity estimates suggested that travelers were very sensitive to changes in egress time, even more so than parking cost, but they were less sensitive to changes in search time. Travelers responded to parking policies primarily by shifting parking locations rather than switching travel mode. Finally, our policy simulation results imply some synergistic effects between policy measures; that is, when pricing and policy measures that reduce search and egress time are combined, they shape parking demand more than the sum of their individual effects if implemented in isolation.

Accessibility strategies beyond the private car: A study of voluntarily carless families with young children in Gothenburg

It is generally recognized that technological fixes alone cannot solve car-induced sustainability problems requiring measures to reduce car use. However, there is a knowledge gap concerning what we can learn from the experience of people who voluntarily refrain from car ownership. This paper aims to explore how everyday life is organized and perceived by voluntarily carless households with complex travel needs, focusing on dual-income families with children living in an urban setting (Gothenburg, Sweden). Through a time-geographical theoretical lens and drawing on eight in-depth interviews with parents, we scrutinize the accessibility strategies of these families and the perceived implications of being voluntarily carless for daily living. We find that these families use largely proximity-oriented strategies and combine various practices in managing time-pressed everyday life. The findings underscore the situatedness of carlessness and the importance of the inherent constraints and fixities of different everyday life projects. Notably, adaptation is considered to be well functioning in the spheres of mandatory activities and bounded routines (related to work, school, and consumption). Regarding free-time activities, carlessness is associated with more friction and perceived inconvenience. Questions are raised regarding the long-term persistence of voluntary carlessness, as family life situations may change. The results merit further consideration in sustainable transport and land use planning as well as regarding the wider organization of society.

Clean Transportation Interventions in Cities

Background and aims: Research over recent years has convincingly demonstrated a broad range of adverse health impacts that are exacerbated by climate change. Climate change mitigation involves reducing emissions of climate-damaging pollutants such as CO2, methane, and black carbon through strategies such as energy efficiency, increased use of renewables, reduced automobile dependency, urban greening, and others. The aim of this session is to present some recent examples of proposed clean transportation interventions in cities worldwide and the impact on health. Method: We obtained some recent examples of proposed and implemented clean transportation interventions in cities and demonstrate the impact on health and the economy. We focus on measures to reduce car use and promote public and active transportation. The studies considered multiple environmental and behavioral risk factors (e.g. air pollution, noise, traffic incidents, physical activity, green spaces and temperature) and multiple outcomes (cases of mortality, morbidity, disability adjusted life years, and economic costs). Results: We will present a number of recent studies estimating the health impacts of clean transportation interventions worldwide including the reduction of car use and increase in cycling, tram and Bus Rapid Transit and changes in the urban setting. The studies compare risks and benefits of clean transport interventions. All the studies show a considerable potential beneficial impact on health mainly through the increase of physical activity. Conclusion: Clean transportation interventions in cities worldwide cannot only mitigate climate change but also improve public health.

Constraints and Motives for Sustainable Transport in Shah Alam

This study revealed the constraints and motivations to using sustainable transportation for daily trips. A total of 384 respondents was selected for this survey, represented the 36 sections of Shah Alam. The reasons provided as barriers to cycling and walking are hot weather, surrounding safety factor, unsatisfactory cycling tracks and poor condition of pedestrian lanes. Among the reasons respondents are not motivated to use public transport are inefficient services and expensive fares. However, the majority stated that the increase in petrol prices and tolls would be key factors to reduce car use and more provision of public transport would encourage them to use public transport.

Public smog knowledge, risk perception, and intention to reduce car use: Evidence from China

ABSTRACTSmog pollution has received widely attention in recent years due to its negative effects. There is consensus that the motor vehicle exhaust emission is one of the sources of smog pollution and reduced private car use would significantly improve the air quality and alleviate the smog pollution problem. In this research, we aim to investigate how public smog knowledge and risk perception (physical health risk perception and mental health risk perception) affect public attitude and intention to reduce car use. A questionnaire survey of 334 randomly sampled respondents was designed to test these relationships. The results show that public smog knowledge is positively and significantly related to physical health risk perception, mental health risk perception, attitude and intention to reduce car use. Public smog knowledge has the largest impact on intention to reduce car use. Furthermore, physical health risk perception and mental health risk perception are positively and significantly associated with attitude and intention to reduce car use. In addition, the results also indicated that public smog knowledge is at a low level. Based on the results, implications and suggestions for future research were discussed.

For which types of trips do French drivers carpool? Motivations underlying carpooling for different types of trips

Carpooling can be understood as an informal agreement between several individuals to share a privately owned car for a trip and to contribute to its expenses. It represents one of the most appealing strategies for reducing car use since it could reduce the number of kilometres driven by car, save money, and contribute to lowering CO2 emissions. Despite these advantages, and even if accepted and somewhat practiced, carpooling is still underused. The aims of this study are to investigate for which type of everyday trips French drivers use carpooling, to analyze their characteristics, and determine whether the motivations for carpooling are different for each type of trip, as well as to find out whether the motivation changes according to the number of carpooled trips. 634 carpool drivers and/or passengers (aged 19–75 years, M = 43.85, SD = 12.05, 42.7% men) were recruited to answer an online survey. Factual data (socio-demographics, transportation accessibility) and motivational factors (attitudes regarding car use, public transportation, environment) were used to describe and explain carpooling for four types of trips (work, children, leisure, and shopping). Carpooling was most frequently used for leisure trips, followed by shopping, and then by work and children trips. Among the motivations underlying carpooling, most notable were the following: perceived pressure from family and peers (for all types of trips) and public transportation attitudes. Finally, motivations for carpooling use differed according to whether participants carpool for one, two, three or four trips, regardless of the type of trip.

Trip Characteristics Analysis of the Effects of a Travel Behavior Change Program

Travel behavior change programs (TBCP) are measures or actions specifically designed to motivate people to reduce their car use. This study contributes to the literature on rigorous evaluation of the effects of participating in TBCP. In particular, we analyze the effect of TBCP in relation to a potential for a reduction in car use. In contrast to previous studies, the effect of TBCP is analyzed considering two characteristics of the trip: travel companion and time of trip. The TBCP, consisting of three persuasion actions customized to the needs of the participants in the research, was designed and implemented in Valencia (Spain). To evaluate the effects of participating in the TBCP, a two-wave panel survey was carried out, which collected activity-travel scheduling process data from participants before and after the implementation of the TBCP. To properly identify the effects of taking part in the TBCP, participants were divided into two groups: those who were involved in the TBCP, and those who did not participate in any persuasion action (control group, CG). Descriptive and confirmatory analysis, which included the use of sample selection panel data models with treatment effects and random parameters, have been developed. The results suggest that the individuals most affected by participating in TBCP are those carrying out solo and afternoon trips. If traveling with companions, those who do so with household members are more influenced by participating in TBCP. Important research and transportation policy implications are derived from these results.