Reduce Irrigation Water Research Articles

Investigation of the symbiotic relationship between Serendipita indica and ZP684 hybrid cultivar of maize plant under a combined condition of root rot disease (Fusarium proliferatum) and drought stress

Climate change is continuously exacerbating drought stress (DS), which damages important crops such as maize, especially under combined conditions of biotic and abiotic environmental stresses. This study investigated the effects of DS and Fusarium proliferatum pathogenicity (FPP) on ZP684 hybrid maize inoculated with an endophytic fungus Serendipita indica. Nineteen physiological plant parameters were measured under both individual and combined conditions. DS was simulated by reducing irrigation water from normal irrigation (NI) to 75 % (75-I), 50 % (50-I), and 25 % (25-I). The plant damage under combined stress conditions was higher than that under individual DS and FPP. The application of S. indica showed a significant improvement in morphophysiological parameters compared to non-inoculated plants under DS, FPP, and combined stress conditions. The enhancement of the morphophysiological parameters demonstrated the ability of S. indica to increase the biomass of hybrid maize plants. Additionally, the inoculation of S. indica resulted in an increase in chlorophyll content, indicating an improvement in photosynthesis in maize plants. Inoculated plants with S. indica also exhibited enhancements in the accumulation of phenolic compounds, flavonoids, and proline dehydrogenase compared to non-inoculated plants. This observation underscores the ability of S. indica to mitigate oxidative stress in the maize ZP684 hybrid cultivar under DS, FPP, and combined stress conditions. Therefore, this research suggests the widespread application of S. indica as a suitable tolerance-inducing agent for the biological control of DS and FPP stresses on maize plants, even under combined conditions.

Current status of global rice water use efficiency and water‐saving irrigation technology recommendations

AbstractRice has a high water requirement, but water use efficiency (WUE) in rice has always been low, and the status of rice WUE and the factors influencing it in various countries around the world is currently unclear. Therefore, this paper collected 56 articles from 2000 to 2022, through which WUE data from different countries and different provinces in China were collated, and the effects of various water‐saving irrigation technologies on WUE of rice and irrigation water use were analysed using the method of Meta‐analysis. The results of this paper show that rice WUE is low in most countries, with the lowest WUE of 0.28 kg/m3 in Thailand and the highest WUE of 1.25 kg/m3 in Bangladesh among the countries included in this study, and flood irrigation is used in most countries. Compared to flood irrigation, all water‐saving irrigation involved can increase rice WUE and reduce irrigation water input, alternate wet and dry irrigation (W1), and controlled irrigation (W2) were able to increase the WUE of rice by 49.86%, 84.74%, and reduce the irrigation water input by 36.55%, 39.55% respectively. Among the six types of water‐saving irrigation input, dry cultivation (W3) had the most significant effect on increasing WUE and reducing irrigation water, reaching 2.02 times and 67.53%, respectively. Based on the annual rainfall (R) and the application of water‐saving irrigation in Asia, sub‐regionally applicable water‐saving irrigation technologies are recommended. W3 is recommended when R <200 mm, W2 is recommended when 200 mm < R < 800 mm, and W1/W2/shallow alternate wet and dry irrigation (W5) is recommended when R >800 mm. According to the data collected in this paper, W1, W2, W3, and W5 can save 3.40 × 1011 m3, 3.78 × 1011 m3, 2.52 × 108 m3, 2.22 × 1011 m3 of irrigation water, respectively. Based on the calculations in this paper, different water‐saving irrigation techniques can save 3.50 × 1011 m3 of water in Asia according to the recommendations. To promote water‐saving irrigation technology, countries need to formulate policies to ensure the development of water‐saving irrigation technology, raise farmers' awareness of water conservation, and provide training and financial support. Promoting the use of different water‐saving irrigation technologies for different regions can significantly reduce irrigation water and increase the WUE of rice, which is important in addressing the challenges of global water scarcity.

The impact of different fertiliser management options and cultivars on nitrogen use efficiency and yield for rice cropping in the Indo-Gangetic Plain: Two seasons of methane, nitrous oxide and ammonia emissions

This study presents detailed crop and gas flux data from two years of rice production at the experimental farm of the ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, India. In comparing 4 nitrogen (N) fertiliser regimes across 4 rice cultivars (CRD 310, IR-64, MTU 1010, P-44), we have added to growing evidence of the environmental costs of rice production in the region. The study shows that rice cultivar can impact yields of both grain, and total biomass produced in given circumstances, with the CRD 310 cultivar showing consistently high nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) for total biomass compared with other tested varieties, but not necessarily with the highest grain yield, which was P-44 in this experiment. While NUE of the rice did vary depending on experimental treatments (ranging from 41% to 73%), 73%), this did not translate directly into the reduction of emissions of ammonia (NH3) and nitrous oxide (N2O). Emissions were relatively similar across the different rice cultivars regardless of NUE. Conversely, agronomic practices that reduced total N losses were associated with higher yield. In terms of fertiliser application, the outstanding impact was of the very high methane (CH4) emissions as a result of incorporating farmyard manure (FYM) into rice paddies, which dominated the overall effect on global warming potential. While the use of nitrification and urease inhibiting substances decreased N2O emissions overall, NH3 emissions were relatively unaffected (or slightly higher). Overall, the greatest reduction in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions came from reducing irrigation water added to the fields, resulting in higher N2O, but significantly less CH4 emissions, reducing net GHG emission compared with continuous flooding. Overall, genetic differences generated more variation in yield and NUE than agronomic management (excluding controls), whereas agronomy generated larger differences than genetics concerning gaseous losses. This study suggests that a mixed approach needs to be applied when attempting to reduce pollution and global warming potential from rice production and potential pollution swapping and synergies need to be considered. Finding the right balance of rice cultivar, irrigation technique and fertiliser type could significantly reduce emissions, while getting it wrong can result in considerably poorer yields and higher pollution.

Nitrogen application rates influence on yield and water productivity of quinoa under saline irrigation water regimes and saline water table

There are areas with high saline water and saline irrigation water in Iran that may be used for quinoa cultivation. In these conditions, proper saline irrigation water regimes and nitrogen application should be determined and used. Therefore, the aim of this experiment is to investigate the effect of different saline irrigation water regimes (100, 75 and 50% of full irrigation, FI) and nitrogen application rates (0, 100, 200 and 300 kg ha−1) on growth and yield of quinoa with water table depth of 0.8 m, salinity of irrigation water and water table of 20 dS m−1. The irrigation of 75% FI and 50% FI decreased the applied water by 19 and 38%, respectively. Further, there was no reducing effect of irrigation water regimes in seed and shoot dry matter yield. Furthermore, groundwater contribution (GWC) increased significantly by 8 and 18% in 75%FI and 50%FI compared with that obtained in full irrigation, and resulted in no extreme water stress under high water table depth (0.8 m). Increasing application of nitrogen fertilizer significantly increased the yield components, ETc and GWC. In addition, reducing irrigation water did not show a significant decrease in water use efficiency (WUE) in high water table depth. However, water productivity increased significantly by decreasing irrigation water. It is concluded that under deficit irrigation, high water table depth could be a valuable source of water supply to meet quinoa water requirements. Moreover, application of nitrogen fertilizer at all levels significantly increased water use efficiency and water productivity.

Evaluation of Irrigation Water Application Techniques at Omo Kuraz Left Bank Canal, SNNPRE, Ethiopia

Water loss from furrows can be due to runoff, seepage and deep percolation which may cause yield reduction. This study focuses on the evaluation of irrigation water application techniques and employed experimental observation which included 30 test observations using the bund, cut-off, cut-back, surge, and portable structure techniques. The experiments were carried out in two blocks; block A with 50 m furrow length and that of block B with 100 m furrow length. The experimental design was a randomized complete block design with three replications. The analysis was done using surface irrigation evaluation model and SAS software package. The results of the study showed that at block A, highest application efficiency of 87.0% was obtained with surge flow and followed to this cut-back recorded 86.6%; whereas the lowest application efficiency of 75.00% was obtain by bund technique. Storage efficiency of surge and cut-back recorded 99.00%. The lowest was obtained by bund (88.9%). The distribution uniformity of surge was highest (84.1%). whereas bund technique gave 71.0% of lowest distribution efficiency. At block B, surge registered the highest application efficiency and distribution uniformity of 66.0% and 59.57% whereas; bund technique records the lowest application efficiency of 60%. The surge and cut-back were more efficient in the field recovery of storage requirement resulted above 99.0%. The statistical analyzed results showed that mean application efficiency of 75.69% was obtained using the surge technique; whereas the lowest application efficiency of 70.0% was obtained by the bund. The use of the surge technique reduces irrigation water loss from 30.0% to 24.3% compared to the local bund technique. This is due to the surge performed better in terms of advance rate and efficient moisture content. With the surge, the highest mean DU of 68.07 % was obtained, while the bund technique had the lowest DU (58.32%). Therefore, adoption of the surge is a promising water application and management practice in sugar cane plantation at Omo Kuraz.

Effects of postharvest deficit irrigation on sweet cherry (Prunus avium) in five Okanagan Valley, Canada, orchards: II. Phenology, cold hardiness, fruit yield, and quality

Irrigated agriculture in semi-arid regions is expected to increase in the future, which puts greater demands on scarce water resources. Sustainable irrigation strategies in semi-arid regions will support agricultural resilience to climatic change. The response of “Sweetheart”/Mazzard sweet cherry trees ( Prunus avium L.) to postharvest deficit irrigation (PDI), as a water conservation method, was studied over three seasons (2019–2022) in the semi-arid Okanagan Valley of British Columbia, at five commercial orchards. The following irrigation treatments were applied; ( i) a control of full irrigation, irrigated according to conventional growers’ practice at each orchard, ( ii) PDI-30: 27%–33% reduction in irrigation volume, after harvest (67%–73% of control), and ( iii) PDI-50: 47%–52% reduction in irrigation volume, after harvest (48–53% of control). Spring phenology (the timing of flower bud development, from side green to full bloom), flower bud moisture content and cold hardiness, and fruit yield and quality (before and after cold storage and shelf-life conditions) were assessed to determine if PDI altered fruit development over the subsequent growing season. Neither PDI-30 nor PDI-50 caused changes in the timing of flower bud phenology, cold hardiness or moisture content relative to the control. PDI treatments also had no effect on fruit yield or fruit quality at harvest or after storage and shelf-life conditions. These results suggest PDI could be used to reduce irrigation water use in semi-arid regions, like the Okanagan Valley, without affecting sweet cherry production or fruit quality.

A New Approach for Agricultural Water Management Using Pillows Made from COVID-19 Waste Face Masks and Filled with a Hydrogel Polymer: Preliminary Studies

Face masks have become an essential commodity during the COVID-19 pandemic, and their use rises daily. Excessive face mask use will likely continue to combat the virus and bacterial impacts in the long term. Afterward, used face masks are hazardous to the environment since most are made of nonbiodegradable porous polymeric fibrous materials. Thus, finding new ways to recycle waste face masks is urgently needed. Similarly, managing agricultural water for irrigation is a crucial challenge in saving water. This study demonstrates an approach for recycling face masks as bag- or small-sized pillows filled with superabsorbent polymers (SAPs) for the slow release of water near plant roots. Previous studies have reported that SAPs or hydrogel could boost soil’s water retention capacity, mixed with hydrogel/SAP. However, mixing SAPs into soil is improper because biodegradation generates low toxic organic molecules and contaminates soil and surface water. The objective of this research was to develop a face mask reuse approach, reduce irrigation water using polymers, and reduce toxic contamination in the soil. Here, swollen SAPs were taken inside the pillow and buried near plants, and the growth of the plants was studied. The moisture of the inner soil was constant for a long time, boosting plant growth. Afterward, the face mask pillows could be removed from the soil and maintained for further use. This new approach could be helpful in pot farming. This approach could contribute to the circular economy and the development of environmental sustainability.

Influence of variability of climatic indicators onwater consumption of cotton

Processing and analysing average annual climatic parameters over 89 years revealed some trends in air temperature, relative air humidity, and precipitation in the typical grey soils (sierozem) region. These trends demonstrate sustained growth of the climatic indices. However, evaporation rates, deficit indices, and their movements, calculated and performed based on the above climatic parameters, have been decreasing with time. Over the recent years, such a downward tendency in climate elements change has reduced irrigation water requirements of early-ripening cotton plants. The article performs experimental data on evaporation rates measured using small-diameter evaporation pans about watertemperature and wind speed. In the region with typical grey soilsover quite a long observation period, significant changes in climatic elements have occurred, which have had a substantial impact on irrigation schedules and total water consumption of crops; these changes are the following: the rise of annual average air temperature by one degree, relative air humidity – by 25%, precipitation – by 40%.

Agriculture and Agricultural Water Management: Historical Perspectives and Integration of Research and Extension/Outreach for Large-Scale Technology Adoption in Production Fields

Highlights AWMN had a significant impact on enhancing agricultural production efficiency. Irrigated land area represented by the Network partners reached 1.20 million ha. On a 16-yr average, the reduction in water withdrawal was 144 mm/ha per growing season. AWMN reduced irrigation water withdrawal by 5 billion m3 from 2005 to 2020. $304 million was saved due to consuming less diesel fuel for pumping irrigation water. A total reduction of 900,000 tons in CO2 emissions was achieved from 2005 to 2020. Abstract. To achieve impact for water resources conservation enhancement and agricultural crop water productivity (CWP) per unit of input for meeting the food, fiber, feed, fuel, finance, and farmstead (6Fs) needs of the rapidly increasing global population, societies must find innovative ways to enable the transfer of research- and science-based data, knowledge, information, technology, and strategies for adoption in agricultural production fields. The objective of this study is to present historical perspectives on the evolution of agriculture and agricultural water management in different parts of the world and present a modern-era agricultural water management network, its objectives, and functions in achieving large-scale impacts to enhance water resource management. The Agricultural Water Management Network (AWMN) was established in 2005 to integrate science, research, and education/outreach principles into producers’ practices to help them make better-informed decisions, conserve water and energy resources, reduce CO2 emissions, and enhance CWP. Through coordinated research, demonstration, and education programs, the AWMN significantly enhanced water resource management and the protection of the environment. It contributed to the sustainability of natural resources and the agricultural economy through the adoption of innovative methodologies and strategies. Since the beginning of the AWMN, over 18,000 producers, crop consultants, state and federal agency personnel, irrigation district personnel, agricultural industry personnel, and other professionals have participated as learners and adopters in over 800 Extension, education, and/or outreach programs conducted by the AWMN team between 2005 and 2020. The irrigated land area represented by the Network partners and collaborators reached over 1.20 million ha in 2020. Water withdrawal for irrigation was reduced from 119 mm/ha per growing season in 2006 to 163 mm/ha per growing season in 2020, with a 16-year average of 144 mm/ha, due to the adoption of technologies and management strategies demonstrated and taught in the Network. Between 2005 and 2020, the AWMN is estimated to have reduced water withdrawal for irrigation by over 5 billion m3 (5 km3; 4.1 million acre-ft). Due to the reduction in irrigation water withdrawals, conservatively, over $304 million was saved by consuming less diesel fuel for pumping irrigation water. The AWMN has effectively reduced CO2 emissions due to a reduction in diesel fuel use, which was over 125,000 tons in 2020 alone with a total reduction of about 900,000 tons from 2005 to 2020. Due to the AWMN’s efforts, tools and technologies introduced in the AWMN are being cost-shared by the Natural Resources Districts for the producers, up to 50% to 70% of the total cost. The AWMN has become the largest and most impactful research-based water management program in the United States that has accomplished substantial adoption of technology and information/knowledge transfer in agriculture through the strong and dedicated partnership of universities, private industry, state and federal agencies, producers, irrigation districts, and crop consultants. The Network is an excellent example of a large-scale program that successfully integrated science, research, and Extension/outreach/education to have significant positive impacts on irrigation agriculture. Keywords: Agricultural education, Agriculture, Crop water productivity, Irrigation, Irrigators network, Technology adoption, Water conservation, Water management.

Model predictive control for precision irrigation of a Quinoa crop

Abstract Traditional High Andean agriculture is rainfed, and irrigation is commonly carried out in an open loop, that is, without measuring variables such as soil moisture content or plant development to define water consumption. This article presents model predictive control applied to irrigation systems under real conditions, whose purpose is the efficient use of water in rainfed crops with improved yield and crop productivity at minimum water consumption. The article presents a control strategy applying a model of predictive control that calculates the optimal amount of water for daily irrigation under real conditions. The most important attraction of the model is the prediction and future behavior of the controlled variables as a function of the changes in the manipulated variables. The objective is to improve the yield of the crop at minimum water consumption, for this, it will be necessary to use models that link with the Aquacrop software and allow it to be a source of data, and for the prediction of future values. The predictive controller is evaluated in the Quinoa crop (Chenopodium Quinoa Willdenow), and the performance is compared against existing traditional irrigation data in the literature. The results indicate that the predictive controller can achieve higher crop efficiency and reduce irrigation water supplies considerably.

Row spacing and irrigation management affect soybean yield, water use efficiency and economics

Declining water levels in the Mississippi River Valley Alluvial Aquifer necessitates research on the management practices that can reduce irrigation water use and improve irrigation water use efficiency. A three-year field study from 2019 to 2021 evaluated the effects of row spacing and irrigation management on soybean seed yield and quality, irrigation water use efficiency (IWUE), water productivity (WP), and profitability. Soybean was planted in two row spacings [single- (SR) and twin-row (TR)] and irrigated with three different methods [every row irrigated (ERI), alternate row irrigated (ARI), non-irrigated (NI)]. Soybean yields were increased with application of irrigation either as ERI or ARI as compared to NI in all three years ranging from 20% to 79%. The ERI had 20% increase in yield over ARI in 2021, whereas no significant differences were found between ERI and ARI in 2019 and 2020. Averaged over row spacing, IWUE was 66–91% greater with ARI compared to ERI. Only 2021 showed an increase (34%) in WP with irrigation applied as ARI than NI. Differences in rainfall amount among years and amount of irrigation applied under different treatments affected the soybean yields. Soybean yield showed reduction by 0.37–1.2 kg ha−1 with each unit increase in cumulative stress (kPa-days) for soil moisture potential drier than the −40 kPa on very fine sandy loam soils. Twin-row soybean had higher expected returns in all cases except for the NI and ERI in 2021. The TR soybean produced the greatest average risk-return than other treatments. The ARI with TR had the second highest overall risk-return trade-off. The ARI resulted in an equivalent risk-return production system as ERI for SR soybeans. Alterations in furrow irrigation methods could be more beneficial than row spacing to improve soybean productivity and IWUE.

Moderate soil drying improves physiological performances and kernel yield of maize

AbstractWater shortage is a serious problem in crop production, and maize (Zea mays L.) is the largest grain crop worldwide. It would have great significance in increasing kernel yield and water use efficiency to establish a high‐yielding and water‐saving irrigation technology in maize. In this study, two high‐yielding maize varieties were used and two irrigation regimes composed of well‐watered (WW) and moderate soil drying (MD) were conducted. Physiological performances, kernel yield, and water use efficiency were investigated. Compared with WW, the MD increased kernel yield by 4.69–6.40%, reduced irrigation water by 26.5–33.3%, and improved irrigation water use efficiency by 43.1–59.3%. In terms of physiological performances, the MD enhanced the leaf superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity, decreased malondialdehyde (MDA) content, increased the leaf photosynthetic rate and the contents of indole‐3‐acetic acid (IAA), zeatin (Z) + zeatin riboside (ZR), gibberellin‐3 (GA3), and abscisic acid (ABA) in inferior kernels, promoted the remobilization of non‐structural carbohydrates (NSC) from stalks and sheaths to kernels, and improved the filling rate and weight of inferior kernels. Correlation analysis showed that IAA, Z + ZR, and ABA contents in kernels were significantly and positively correlated with the kernel filling rate. These results suggest that the moderate soil drying imposed during the whole growth period of maize can achieve the dual goal of increasing food production and saving water by improving physiological performance, especially regulating hormonal levels in the kernel.

Effects of micro-sprinkling with different irrigation levels on winter wheat grain yield and greenhouse gas emissions in the North China Plain

Increasing scarcity of irrigation water is threatening global wheat production and sustainability. Accordingly, the water-saving irrigation regime has been strongly advocated to reduce irrigation water consumption. However, studies about greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from the winter wheat cropping system with water-saving irrigation are rare. In this study, five irrigation regimes, wherein the supplementary irrigation brought soil water content in the 0–40 cm profile to 65% (K65) field water capacity (FC), 70% (K70) FC, 75% (K75) FC, 80% (K80) FC, and 85% (K85) FC at the joining and anthesis stages in 2019–2022. K75 improved the leaf area index at the grain-filling stage and dry matter remobilization pre-anthesis and dry matter assimilation post-anthesis. Correspondingly, 5.48–23.96% increases in grain yield were observed for K75 compared with K65, K70, and K85 treatments, mainly attributable to increased number of kernels and 1000-kernel weight. Compared with the K80 and K85 treatments, K75 treatment had the most prominent effect on the instability of soil carbon, nitrogen, and moisture content, as reflected in decreased cumulative emissions of soil N2O (5.15–15.65%) and CH4 (6.07–44.07%). It also decreased the global warming potential (6.17–19.53%). However, there were no significant differences among K65, K70, and K75 treatments. In addition, the K75 treatment decreased greenhouse gas intensity (GHGI) by 5.04–25.25% compared with K65, K70, K80 and K85 treatments. Collectively, based on the combined effects of grain yield and greenhouse gas emissions improvement, we recommend K75 as a sustainable irrigation regime that can improve grain yield and decrease greenhouse gas emissions.

Quantifying water saving benefits of fixed white protective netting in irrigated apple orchards under Mediterranean-type climate conditions in South Africa

• Transpiration based crop water productivity (WP) is higher under nets compared to open orchards. • The water saving benefits of fixed nets are smaller than expected when considering ET rates possibly because of wetter soils under the nets. • There is merit in adjusting crop coefficients for irrigation scheduling under nets given the significant differences in tree transpiration rates. Apple ( Malus domestica Borkh.) producers are increasingly using nets to address climate and pest-related challenges. In the water-scarce Western Cape region of South Africa, all commercial apple orchards are irrigated. Based on limited information on tree water relations under protective nets, we hypothesised that significant water savings and improvements in crop water productivity could be achieved under nets. The lack of accurate quantitative information on water use under nets may perpetuate sub-optimal irrigation practices partly due to inaccurate crop coefficients. This study quantified tree transpiration (T) using the heat ratio sap flow method and orchard evapotranspiration (ET) using the soil water balance approach in mature irrigated ‘Rosy Glow’ apple orchards under fixed white net compared to an open (control) over two seasons. Differences in water use between treatments were analysed by comparing microclimates, plant water status, root zone soil moisture, and irrigation levels. Averaged over the two seasons, the nets reduced daily total solar radiation by ∼ 12%, wind speed by more than 36%, and reference evapotranspiration by ∼ 12%. Seasonal T was 11% lower under nets, while ET was only 4% lower. The nets reduced irrigation water requirement by 4%. Peak mid-season basal crop coefficients (K cb ) were 0.54±0.02 and 0.59±0.02 while there were no differences in the single crop coefficients (K c = 1.07±0.04 and 1.13±0.06) for the nets and control treatments, respectively. Transpiration based crop water productivity (WP) was higher under nets (20.7 kg m − 3 ) compared to 18.2 kg m − 3 in the open. There were no differences in the ET-based WP values (13.4 and 13.2 kg m − 3 ) for the nets and control treatments, respectively. This study suggests that water saving benefits of fixed nets are smaller than expected when considering ET rates because of more active ground cover under nets. But there is merit in adjusting crop coefficients for irrigation scheduling under nets given the much lower transpiration.

AN ANALYTICAL STUDY TO ESTIMATE WATER FOOTPRINT AND ITS ECONOMIC EFFECTS FOR WHEAT CROP IN EGYPT

Wheat is the most important strategic grain crops in Egypt . The average area with wheat in Egypt is about 3.144 million Feddans (2000-2018).Wheat cultivated area comprises about 45.2% of the total area of the winter crops during (2016 – 2018), which is about 6.953 million Feddans. Under the condition of limited resources in Egypt, Virtual Waters principle considers importing/exporting crops equivalent to importing/exporting water resources from other countries. Available works used farm-scale experimental data, which didnt add-up to applicable values. In this work, we use data by CAPMS (Central Agency for Public Mobilization and Statistics Egypt) to evaluate wheat water footprint in Egypt. The objectives of this work are: to estimate the Overall Water Footprint indicators for the wheat crop, and to estimate the food security coefficient, and the strategic stock for the crop. In addition, to evaluate the relative value of contribution from local wheat production, wheat imports and the Egyptian agricultural investment abroad in achieving food security for wheat crop in Egypt. The total quantity of virtual waters acquired from imports and Egyptian agricultural investment abroad to achieve the complete level of food security coefficient (1.0) for wheat was estimated. It ranges between the lowest value of 2.9 billion Cubic meters, and highest value of 11.7 billion cubic meters, valued about 3.7 billion Egyptian Pounds, at 95% degree of confidence. Based on the above results, this work recommends the following: 1) Supporting the research authorities to develop a new wheat crop which require less quantities of irrigation water. 2) implementation of modern irrigation systems that reduce irrigation water losses in agriculture. And 3) Adopting agricultural policy that balances between the local production, trade and the external agricultural investment together with optimization of the return from the water unit used in the agricultural.

Optimizing Irrigation for Mechanized Concord Juice Grape Production

<h3>Background and goals</h3> Economic considerations and water shortages associated with climate change are driving the conversion of many hand-pruned and furrow- or sprinkler-irrigated juice grape vineyards in arid eastern Washington to mechanical pruning and drip irrigation. However, juice grape producers have traditionally avoided plant water deficits, fearing a decline in vineyard productivity. <h3>Methods and key findings</h3> We conducted a six-year field trial to test the impact of eight drip-irrigation treatments on large, mechanically-pruned Concord grapevines. We found an estimated crop coefficient of 1.05 between fruit set and harvest. Replacing 75% of crop evapotranspiration (ET_c) from fruit set through harvest reduced annual irrigation water supply by 20% below that of the 100% ET_c control without altering canopy size, yield, or juice composition. Decreasing the water supply from 100% to 50% ET_c at veraison saved only 8% irrigation water, while irrigating at 50% ET_c from fruit set through veraison, and 100% ET_c thereafter, reduced irrigation water use by 30% but decreased canopy size and reduced yield by 14%. Replacing 150% of ET_c between fruit set and veraison increased seasonal water use by 20% but did not alter yield or juice composition. <h3>Conclusions and significance</h3> Deficit irrigation does not impact crop yield and juice composition, so long as vines experience only mild water stress (midday stem water potential &gt; −1 MPa) before veraison. Irrigating at 75% ET_c to impose mild preveraison water stress and mild to moderate postveraison stress optimally balances the goals of water conservation and yield and quality sustainability in juice grape production.

Development of Decision Support System Based on the Bayes ARD Algorithm for Irrigation of Cotton

&#x0D; Cotton is a plant, which is mainly cultivated in regions where the irrigation is necessary as rainwater is not adequate. Researches in the recent years have showed that the irrigation water used could be declined. Improvements in the technological field has made Decision Support Systems combined with Neural Networks and data analysis, an important tool of sustainable agriculture. Cotton producers need to reduce irrigation water needs and that can be achieved by using new technologies. The development Decision Support System was conducted, having 3 different types of input. Data derived from a variety of IoT sensors, weather stations, and on-site measurements (yield and ΕΜ38) derived from 3 fields in Greece, creating a dataset of 9 different inputs. A total of 13 different algorithms were tested and evaluated in order to determine which one is the ideal for our dataset. The adoption of this technology in real data predicted the reduction of the irrigation times, ensuring that there will be no losses in the final yield.&#x0D;

Optimal cropping patterns can be conducive to sustainable irrigation: Evidence from the drylands of Northwest China

The pressures of frequent extreme weather, water shortages and increasing food demand pose a continued challenge of maintaining the sustainable development of irrigated agricultural systems. Although rational arable land management is fundamental to alleviating these pressures, the relationship between cropping patterns and irrigation sustainability is understudied. Using the Hexi Corridor as an example, a maximum entropy machine learning model was used to determine the optimal cropping pattern based on crop suitability and to explore the impact mechanism of the optimal cropping pattern on the irrigation sustainability index (SI) from the perspective of reliability, resilience, and vulnerability. An optimal cropping pattern was conducive to sustainable irrigation and reduced irrigation water use by 21.03% from 1960 s to 2010 s with no continued agricultural expansion. Thus, the challenges of food security and sustainability for similar regions, and globally, can be met but will require major changes in cropping planning and management.

Water evaporation reduction by the agrivoltaic systems development

The triple benefits of the AgriVoltaic Systems Development (AVSD) have been well demonstrated, not only for the PV electricity generation but also for reduced water evaporation, enhancing further the benefits of simultaneously crop growth on the same land area. However, the reduction rate of the water evaporation of AVSD has not been investigated in a quantitative way. Therefore, this study conducted experiments to measure water evaporation reduction under the Concentrated-lighting Agrivoltaic System (CAS) and the Even-lighting Agrivoltaic System (EAS). Evaporation containers and pans were placed in the bare soil (CK) under the CAS and the EAS. Our results showed a significant reduction in water evaporation under CAS and EAS. Cumulative soil surface evaporation of CK, CAS, and EAS for 45 days was 80.53 mm, 63.38 mm, and 54.14 mm. The cumulative water evaporation from soil and pan surfaces decreased by 21 % and 14 % (under CAS), 33 %, and 19 % (under EAS), respectively. The slope β1 ≠ 0 of simple linear regression showed a significant positive relationship between evaporation time and cumulative water evaporation. The correlation coefficient in all treatments was more than 0.91, suggesting a robust linear relationship. The feasibility of AVSD could significantly reduce irrigation water, enhance crop growth, and generate electricity simultaneously on the same agricultural land.

Optimizing the lateral dripline spacing of drip-irrigated aerobic rice to increase water productivity and profitability under the water-limited condition

The potential use of drip irrigation to reduce water use without yield penalty in aerobic rice cultivation has not been fully explored in the tropics due to high investment costs. One major way to lowering this cost is by optimizing the lateral spacing to serve more rows of rice plants per dripline. This study evaluates the effects of lateral dripline spacing on the grain yield, water productivity, and the economic return in aerobic rice production. Field experiments were conducted for the period of two years (2020–2021) using three lateral dripline spacings (40-cm, 60-cm, and 80-cm) as treatments and surface flooding as the control. Grain yields, water use, water productivity, and economic benefits were evaluated. The drip-irrigated aerobic rice did not show significant differences with surface flooding except for a lower yield at 80-cm in 2021 dry season due to its low percent filled grains. Among treatments, the 60-cm lateral spacing consistently obtained the highest irrigation water productivity by up to 1.03 kg m-3 and 42% irrigation water savings relative to surface flooding. Increasing the spacing of the lateral dripline decreased the material costs (80 <60 <40 cm) by 10–36%. The 60-cm spacing produced the highest average net income by 41–75% among drip treatments and had comparative economic returns compared with surface flooding. The net present value and the benefit-cost ratio indicate that it is economically viable to invest in drip irrigation using a 60-cm lateral spacing. Thus, this study suggests that when there is insufficient water to grow surface flooding aerobic rice, drip irrigation using 60-cm lateral spacing is the best option for reducing irrigation water use and increasing water productivity; while having comparative yield and economic return as surface flooding method of aerobic rice cultivation.