Reduce Waste Disposal Research Articles

Using a Low-Temperature Pyrolysis Device for Polymeric Waste to Implement a Distributed Energy System

Due to global changes, the international community is paying attention to the application of innovative energy technologies to meet the sustainable development of ecology and the environment. As a result, the concept of “waste-to-energy” has been developed. This study proposes a modular device for low-temperature pyrolysis (less than 300 °C) of polymers as a verifiable framework for a decentralized energy supply. Experiments with various plastics as waste feedstocks for conversion into fuel products were carefully analyzed. Mixed plastics (petrochemical polymers) and natural materials (organic polymers) were further subjected to energy conversion efficiency evaluation. The feasibility of continuous implementation was verified, converting 4000 kg of waste plastics with chemical potential into 3188 L of waste polymer oil (WPO), and generating 6031 kWh of electricity. Integrated electromechanical control realizes a low-temperature microwave pyrolysis process with low pollution emissions. The new technology harvests energy from troublesome garbage, reduces waste disposal volume by 55~88%, and produces cleaner, low-toxicity residual, easy-to-store fuel that can be used in general internal combustion engines. Standardized modular equipment provides an effective solution for resilient energy systems, and its easy scalability can reduce the load on the basic grid and improve the stability and dispatchability of energy supply. This research will realize on-site waste treatment, reduce transportation energy consumption, meet regional energy demands, and apply it to coastal, remote villages, offshore platforms, and emergency scenarios.

Thermal hydrolysis of solid fraction reduces waste disposal and provides a substrate for anaerobic photobiological treatment of refinery wastewater

In this study, a photoanaerobic PPB-based biological system for the treatment of refinery wastewater and oily sludge pretreated by thermal hydrolysis has been studied within the framework of sustainability.

Utilization of Construction and Demolition Mix Waste in the Fired Brick Production: The Impact on Mechanical Properties.

The European Green Deal, which emphasizes zero-waste economies, and waste recycling in construction and building materials, has arisen due to significant worldwide needs for solid waste recovery and usage. This ambitious study focuses on recycling mixed construction and demolition (C&D) waste into burnt bricks and investigating the influence of firing temperature. While pursuing its objectives, this is dependent on raw material characterization and burnt-brick product quality assessment. The recycling of mixed C&D waste is explored by mixing the waste into two soil types (alluvial and laterite) in ratios ranging from 5% to 45% at three firing temperatures (700 °C, 850 °C and 900 °C). The utilization of mixed C&D waste in amounts of 10% at 700 °C and 25% at 850 °C and 900 °C fulfilled the Indian standard. Although a fire at 700 °C results in less optimal waste utilization, it is beneficial and recommended for reducing the carbon footprint and energy use. Additional mineralogical and microstructural analyzes are performed on the optimal fired samples. The study's findings are promising for sustainable resource usage, reducing carbon footprint, and reducing waste disposal volume. This research is a big step toward the Sustainable Development Goals of the United Nations and a circular economy.

Utilization of Plastic Waste as a Partial Replacement of Coarse Aggregates in Concrete

Medical Plastic waste is produced in large quantities in India each year, thus recycling it as a constituent in concrete can help to reduce waste disposal. The pandemic of Covid-19 has also resulted in increased production of the PP plastic waste. Because medical plastic wastes are harmful to both the environment and human health, using plastic trash in concrete will help to safeguard both the environment and human health Earlier, different research work were undertaken to figure out safe and feasible methods for plastic waste ejection but with scarce land resources and the threat it has posed to the environment has led us to take a step back and think of safe measures for its safe re-utilization. One such approach is utilization of plastic in concrete manufacturing. With a comparatively longer service life, concrete can act as a safe place for plastic utilization. Plastic wastes are employed as coarse aggregate in concrete in various proportions, and their suitability is tested, the impact of employing plastic waste as coarse aggregate replacement is investigated in this study. As part of the investigation of concrete’s plastic inclusion effect, different experimental research are discussed in this study. The current investigation was carried out on M30 grade concrete, with coarse aggregate replaced with medical PP plastic waste at varied proportions of 20%, 40%, 60%, 80% and 100%. The physical and mechanical properties were comparatively analysed, and the replacement value was optimised. Fresh and hardened concrete qualities were tested and the concrete replacement value for coarse aggregate was optimised at 40% partial replacement of natural coarse aggregate by PP plastic in concrete. Fresh and hardened concrete qualities were tested and analysed.

What material flow analysis and life cycle assessment reveal about plastic polymer production and recycling in South Africa

Global production and consumption of plastics have increased significantly in recent years. The environmental impacts associated with this trend have received growing attention internationally with single-use plastic packaging responsible for most plastic pollution. Locally, the SA Plastics Pact, the Industry Master Plan, and the National Waste Management Strategy all aim to transform the current linear sector model into a circular system by setting targets for increased collection and recycling rates and recycled content. However, the associated impacts of implementing such circular interventions have not yet been assessed across the plastics life cycle. Industrial ecology tools, material flow analysis and life cycle assessment, are used to generate mass-based indicators as well as indicators of climate damage in the form of the global warming potential. The carbon footprint of the South African plastics value chain from cradle to grave was estimated at 17.9 Mt CO2eq emissions in 2018, with 52% of these due to the local coal-based monomer production process. The end-of-life stage lacks proper waste collection for a third of the population, but contributes only 2% to the total greenhouse gas emissions, with recycling having a minimal environmental impact. Future projections of plastics production, use, disposal, and recycling for 2025 show that increasing mechanical recycling rates to achieve stated targets would start to have a significant effect on virgin polymer demand (in the order of several billion rands of sales annually) but would also reduce waste disposal by 28% relative to baseline growth and 18% below values calculated for 2018. Significance: Despite increased attention, the flows and resulting life cycle-based carbon footprint of the plastics sector have not been evaluated on a local scale. The carbon footprint of the South African plastics industry is sizeable at almost 18 Mt CO2eq per annum with emissions strongly associated with the linear rather than the circular stages of the value chain. The impacts of a key circular economy intervention, namely increased recycling rates to achieve set targets include demand reduction for virgin polymer to the tune of several billion rands.

Supply Chain Coordination in Industrial Symbiosis Networks with Uncertain Waste Demand and Supply

By-product synergy (BPS) is considered an effective measure to support a circular economy and sustainable development as it can reduce waste disposal and natural resource consumption. The adoption of BPS can create new supplier-buyer relations that are different from traditional ones because the traded products are usually outside of the core business of the supplier, so the new relations need to be coordinated. This paper considers a two-echelon supply chain consisting of a manufacturer and a retailer. The by-product is randomly generated along with the production of the core product. The manufacturer sells its core product directly to the market with uncertain demand and sells the by-product to the retailer facing stochastic demand. To coordinate both the manufacturer’s production and retailer’s order decisions and achieve efficient performance, we analyze several contracts and find that a combined contract with an ABD contract and a revenue sharing contract could coordinate the supply chain and realize Pareto-improvement. A numerical experiment is also carried out to explore the influences of fluctuations in demand and supply on the performance of the manufacturer, the retailer, and the total supply chain.

PROBLEMSOF LOCAL FLOODS AND THEIR RELATION TO BOGOR CITY DRAINAGE INFRASTRUCTURE SYSTEM

Highland areas are not necessarily without flood problems, especially local flooding. The problem of poor drainage can be the cause of a local flood, as happened in Bogor City, West Java. Development evaluation related to local flooding in a city is an exciting topic to study further. The purpose of this evaluation is to answer the need for public information about the philosophy of flooding in the highlands, existing policies, and factors causing local flooding in Bogor City. The benefits of this analysis can also provide policymakers with input on strategic steps in the planning of urban drainage infrastructure systems, both in terms of physical channels, social approaches, and aspects of land carrying capacity within the ecological framework. The method used in this evaluation is in the form of literature studies and direct field observations of Bogor City's drainage infrastructure at specific points. The recommendation for the Bogor City government is to carry out comprehensive data collection and re-topography, namely by collecting data on buildings and drainage, determining the slope and height of the channel, and implementing risk management at each stage of its implementation. In addition, strict supervision and community participation in overseeing the development process and reducing waste disposal in the river supports the improvement of drainage development.

Trading one waste for another? Unintended consequences of fly ash reuse in the Indian electric power sector

In this paper, we examine the direct consequences of waste by-product reuse in a polluting industry, namely, India's coal-fired electric power sector, where ‘fly ash’ is legally required to be used as a substitute input in other industries. We first develop a simple theoretical model to gain insight and derive testable hypotheses applicable to our specific empirical setting. We provide empirical support for our model's predictions by exploiting plant-level variation in fly ash utilization. Results indicate greater reuse of fly ash per kWh of generation increases coal consumption per kWh, reduces the quality of coal used, and increases plant-level CO2 emissions per kWh. These results suggest the potential benefits of this policy—e.g., reduced waste disposal costs—may be offset by unanticipated increases in other external costs, particularly if not accompanied by supplementary regulation of other forms of pollution.

The insights of pet cokes/palm kernel shell activated carbon as CO2 adsorbent: equilibrium, kinetics, thermodynamics, and regeneration performance

AbstractBACKGROUNDOver the years, activated carbon has been widely used for environmental applications, including liquid or gas phase applications. However, there are many hurdles for researchers in the activated carbon field to overcome when it comes to non‐renewable materials, the utilization of individual precursors, and the complex multistep procedures of activated carbon synthesis. Therefore, in this study, the facile mechanochemical potassium carbonate (K2CO3) activation of blended precursors — palm kernel shell and petroleum coke — was investigated in terms of the activated carbon yield and carbon dioxide (CO2) adsorption capacity.RESULTSThe optimum configuration of the activated carbon production was found at temperature of 680°C, holding time of 60 min, and impregnation ratio of 1.75:1. The CO2 adsorption data at 25–120°C was best represented by the Sips model with R2 > 0.9999, where maximum CO2 adsorption capacity (qmax) was within the range of 2.24–4.32 mmol/g. The kinetic analysis was well‐represented by the pseudo‐second order model due to the high R2 and low sum of square of errors (ERRSQ) value. In terms of thermodynamic analysis, it showed that the CO2 adsorption process was physical, exothermic, and spontaneous at lower temperature.CONCLUSIONOverall, the integration of agricultural and industrial waste to value‐added activated carbon was feasible not only in reducing waste disposal problems but also in facilitating CO2 mitigation. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry (SCI).

Material flow analysis study of asphalt in an Austrian municipality

The large quantity and long service time of construction has a crucial impact on the flow of resources during construction, maintenance, and at the end of life. Reducing waste disposal and increasing recycling rates consequently reduce the consumption of primary raw materials. Hence, through material flow and stock analysis, material consumption, waste generation, and waste utilization can be quantified. Previous research on the material turnover in the transportation infrastructure sector focused on well-developed cities or countries and showed that maintenance has an increasing contribution to the material input and output. The present study investigated the anthropogenic flows and stocks of asphalt in the road network of an Austrian municipality. The material flow analysis was based on detailed construction reports, regional expert estimations, simulations, and literature. The retrospective analysis from 2006 to 2020 revealed that the asphalt stock of the municipality is constantly increasing through semierratic input and output flows of asphalt. Maintenance of the road network through reconstruction made a major contribution to the stock increase due to improving the road layout. Asphalt outputs of the municipality are reclaimed asphalt, excess asphalt during construction, and asphalt dispersed from the road due to deterioration. The flow into the environment is often neglected but diminishes the potential recycling amount, contributes to dust pollution, and is a source of microplastic. Reclaimed asphalt was not utilized in new asphalt mixtures in the municipality, as it was downcycled and applied as granular material. Several factors, including regional circumstances, were identified for downcycling. This article met the requirements for a gold-gold JIE data openness badge described at http://jie.click/badges.

The utilization of biomass waste as charcoal briquette to reduce waste disposal

This study focuses on the potential of biomass to be developed becomes charcoal briquette. Based on data from the Central Bureau of Statistics (North Sumatra Province), the planted area and total coconut production of North Sumatra Province in 2019 were 110,345 hectares and 99,132 tons. The objective of this research is to obtain the properties of charcoal briquettes by varying the composition and pressure. The variations of the briquette moulding pressure are 80 and 100 Bar with composition variations of 1:10 and 1:15, respectively. The experimental tests were carried out to obtain Young’s modulus and wt% of briquette. The results showed that the value of tensile strength and wt% of briquette depends on the moulding pressure and duration of drying. The conclusion of this study shows that coconut shell and durian skin waste are very likely to be used as a renewable alternative fuel energy source as briquette.

Physical and Mechanical Properties of Eco-Friendly Composites Made from Wood Dust and Recycled Polystyrene

The development of alternative wood composites based on the use of waste or recycled materials can be beneficial due to over exploitation of natural resources. Under this frame, an option for the successful utilization of waste polystyrene which avoids environmental problems that formaldehyde adhesives cause and also reduces waste disposal, is its potential application as a binder for the production of value-added environmentally friendly and low cost wood composites. Two types of panel were successfully made, consisting of wood dust and two recycled polystyrene contents, namely, 15% and 30%. Both physical properties, water absorption and thickness swelling, and mechanical properties, modulus of rupture, shear strength parallel in the plane of the board and glue line shear strength, were significantly improved as the recycled polystyrene content increased from 15% to 30%. Water absorption and thickness swelling after 24 h immersion in water were improved by 165% and 750% as the recycled polystyrene content increased from 15% to 30%. The magnitude of the improvement in mechanical properties however, was less pronounced than of the physical properties since modulus of rupture, shear strength parallel in the plane of the board and glue line shear strength were increased by 43.6%, 50% and 61.5%, respectively. The low viscosity of the recycled polystyrene caused more mobility inside the panel matrix and therefore, an improved penetration took place into adequate depth of the compressed dust particles. It is concluded that boards can be successfully produced using these waste raw materials, wood dust and recycled polystyrene in organic solvent as a binder, and therefore it can reduce waste disposal and provide cleaner production for the development of wood-based boards.

Experimental Study on Mechanical Properties of Concrete by partial replacement of Cement with Eggshell Powder for Sustainable Construction

Oman has made tremendous progress in establishing road infrastructure to enable industrial expansion in the age of globalization. As an oil-dependent economy, Oman's Vision 2040 asks for the construction of multiple power projects, greater manufacturing capacity, the expansion of the building industry, and a range of other infrastructures. As a consequence, it is clear that the success of a state is based not only on technological growth, but also on well-developed physical infrastructure. Despite the fact that concrete enterprises contributed to carbon emissions, a key component in environmental deterioration, and concrete industry waste contributed to global warming. During the last decade, substantial study has been conducted on waste management in the concrete sector. Effective bio-waste disposal has become more vital in our society for both environmental and economic reasons. Eggshell recovery from hatcheries, residences, bakeries, and businesses is a low-cost and efficient way to reduce waste disposal and avoid serious pollution. Egg shell garbage contains both organic and inorganic components that can be composted with other materials to improve the qualities of pre-existing products. The main objective of every civil sector is effective construction at a reasonable cost. The goal of this research is to evaluate the impact of eggshell powder as a partial replacement material of cement in concrete manufacturing. Eggshell powder is partially replaced as various proportions, such as 5, 10, 15 and 20 percentages, has been utilized as a substitute for conventional Portland cement in a design mix percentage in standard concrete of grade M 25. According to the findings, the concrete considerable improvement was noticed in the compressive and flexural strength of concrete. Furthermore, according to the data analysis from this experiment, the optimal proportion of oven-dried eggshell powder as a partial cement alternative is 10%.

Comparative Evaluation of Potential Impacts of Agricultural and Industrial Waste Pozzolanic Binders on Strengths of Concrete

Concrete is one of the most widely used construction material in the world which uses aggregates and cement as a binder. Use of cement concrete and mining/ transportation of raw materials makes the construction industry the biggest emitter of CO2 by contributing up to 7-10% of global emissions. The waste materials from different industries and agriculture contribute to 90% of waste disposal/ recycling effort in the world. This research has focused to use a selection of waste materials as supplementary cementitious materials (SCM) to minimize the emission of CO2 and recycling/ absorption of waste from other industries to construction industry to make it more sustainable. The contemporary research has established use of pulverized fly ash (PFA), silica fume (SF), metakaolin (MK) and granulated ground blast furnace slag (GGBS) as suitable SCMs. This study has focused on using two established industrial waste SF and MK and two agricultural wastes, rice husk ash (RHA) and palm ash (PA), to determine and compare their potential use as pozzolanic SCMs and to expand the family of alternative pozzolanic binders in addition to PFA and GGBS. The w/c (w/b) ratio was 0.4 with an intended design mix strength classification of C50/60. The chemical composition of all the materials was determined through x-ray spectrometry/ diffraction test to ascertain the chemistry. All four materials satisfied the ASTM constituent criteria for pozzolans. In comparison to the control mix (100% cement content), all these materials improved the compressive strength from 2.5% to 30% and enhanced tensile strength from up to 17%, indeed all the SCM mixes had a higher compressive strength than the control. RHA exhibited the best performance in agricultural waste with 10% optimum quantity to give maximum compressive strength of 83 MPa and PA exhibited the optimum performance with 2.5% content and gave maximum compressive strength of 78 MPa. The addition of MK progressively increased the compressive strength with 20% content mix giving a strength of 84 MPa. The SF performed the best at optimum quantity of 2.5% and exhibited the highest compressive strength of 90 MPa. The results suggest that these SCM based concrete are recommended for formulation of high-strength concrete applications, i.e., 60+ MPa. Furthermore, all the SCMs had at least one mix which satisfied the C60/75 classification without reducing the w/b ratio below 0.4; this has significant positive ramifications for the development of sustainable high-performance concrete. The absorption of waste materials from industrial and agricultural fields can substantially reduce waste disposal and more pertinently facilitate in reducing the CO2 emission associated with the construction industry

Cultivation of maggot from organic waste to increase economic value at TPS 3R Enggal Comfort, Gondosuli, Muntilan

Gondosuli Village is located in Muntilan District, Magelang Regency, and has a high population growth rate, economy, and development, all of which contribute to increased community activities. This causes waste production to continue to rise; additionally, there are issues with waste management from upstream to downstream, namely a lack of waste reduction, which leads to waste accumulation in landfills. This is due to a lack of proper management, which consists of only collection, disposal, and transportation. As a result, the community service is carried out by planning for a solid waste management system capable of reducing waste from upstream. The cultivation of maggots from organic waste is an upstream system approach that can be used to solve the waste problem. BSF maggot cultivation has several advantages, including the production of pre-puppa, which can be used as a source of protein for animal feed, and aiding in the resolution of the community's organic waste processing problem. The concept of integrated waste management (TPS 3R) can be combined with a waste bank to reduce waste disposal in the TPA while also providing economic value.

Implementation of Eco-Industrial Park for Effectual Establishment of Circular Economy in Russia

In recent years, waste management has become a major concern in Russian cities. This can be addressed through the circular economy. Developing Eco-Industrial Parks (EIP) can be considered an innovative infrastructure of a circular economy. EIP is based upon the principles of industrial symbiosis involving the exchange of material and energy flows, sharing of infrastructural facilities, and provision of municipal utility and other services. Researchers have found that most industrial symbiotic interconnections originated spontaneously, the main driver being the increasing commercial benefits of such interchange. Still, the authors were able to identify pre-designed EIP through their examination of global practices. This paper proposes a five-stage methodological approach to EIP organization. This methodology was applied to create a model of an EIP in the Voronezh Region, one of the fastest developing regions in Russia. Implementation of this model is intended to help solve a set of environmental, economic, and social problems of a region. The approach to creating EIPs described in this study can be used in other places to improve resource efficiency and reduce waste disposal. Because Russia’s garbage disposal rate currently exceeds 90% per year, this is one of the country’s top sustainable development priorities.

H2-enriched gaseous fuel production via co-gasification of an algae-plastic waste mixture using Aspen PLUS

Thermo-chemical conversion of biomass is a promising technological alternative for producing renewable fuel and reducing waste disposal. This simulation study includes the first attempt to perform co-gasification of algae-plastic waste for H2-enriched gaseous fuel production. An Aspen Plus-based simulation model was developed to evaluate the influence of gasifier temperature and equivalence ratio on the syngas composition, heating value, and carbon conversion efficiency. Simulation results indicated that the rise in gasifier temperature favoured the H2 and CO formation, and further, plastic loading enhanced H2 production to a greater extent. It was observed that the product (H2 and CO) yield decreased significantly with the rise of the equivalence ratio. At the same time, CO2 formation increased due to more carbon conversion after enhancing O2 content in the gasifier. It was also noticed that the synergy of biomass and plastic waste significantly enhanced H2 content and improved heating value, leading to a produced energy-efficient gaseous product. It is inferred that H2-enriched feedstock acts as an H2 donor to the H2 deficient biomass. Based on the findings, consistency in the simulation results was observed compared with the previous literature. Hence, a mixture of biomass and plastic waste favours obtaining an energy-efficient renewable fuel that could be utilized for different applications.

Penerapan Teknologi Mesin Pencacah Sampah Organik Rumah Tangga di Desa Pesucen Kabupaten Banyuwangi

Currently, there is a lot of garbage scattered around in the environment, such as the garbage found in small rivers due to the lack of awareness of people who throw garbage in rivers. In fact, throwing garbage in the river causes the overflow of river water so that there is a flood. To overcome these environmental problems, a tool was created, namely the household organic waste chopper, this machine is one solution to reduce waste disposal in the river, which then the results of the enumeration are used for organic fertilizers for plants. Planning for household organic waste choppers as a solution for the environment for the manufacture of organic fertilizer materials as well as to reduce waste that is thrown away, and also the results of the enumeration are used for organic fertilizer on plants. This community service program involves partners and students of the Mechanical Engineering Study Program. The initial stage of this service activity is to conduct a survey to identify the problems faced by partners and conduct a literature study to obtain solutions to partner problems. After the solution to the partner's problem is obtained, the next step is to design and manufacture the machine needed, namely a household organic waste chopper. The household organic waste shredder which is transferred to partners is made as simple as possible, easy to operate and easy to maintain. With the existence of this organic waste shredder, it is hoped that it can help the Pesucen Village community in minimizing piles of organic waste that have a negative impact on the environment

Combustion of a Solid Recovered Fuel (SRF) Produced from the Polymeric Fraction of Automotive Shredder Residue (ASR).

The use of alternative fuels derived from residues in energy-intensive industries that rely on fossil fuels can cause considerable energy cost savings, but also significant environmental benefits by conserving non-renewable resources and reducing waste disposal. However, the switching from conventional to alternative fuels is challenging for industries, which require a sound understanding of the properties and combustion characteristics of the alternative fuel, in order to adequately adapt their industrial processes and equipment for its utilization. In this work, a solid recovered fuel (SRF) obtained from the polymeric fraction of an automotive shredder residue is tested for use as an alternative fuel for scrap preheating in an aluminium refinery. The material and chemical composition of the SRF has been extensively characterized using proximate and ultimate analyses, calorific values and thermal degradation studies. Considering the calorific value and the chlorine and mercury contents measured, the SRF can be designated as class code NCV 1; Cl 2; Hg 2 (EN ISO 21640:2021). The combustion of the SRF was studied in a laboratory-scale pilot plant, where the effects of temperature, flow, and an oxidizer were determined. The ash remaining after combustion, the collected liquid, and the generated gas phase were analysed in each test. It was observed that increasing the residence time of the gas at a high temperature allowed for a better combustion of the SRF. The oxidizer type was important for increasing the total combustion of the vapour compounds generated during the oxidation of the SRF and for avoiding uncontrolled combustion.

A combined MaxEnt and GIS‐based methodology to estimate cactus pear biomass distribution: application to an area of southern Italy

AbstractThe need to investigate suitable alternatives to conventional fossil fuels has increased interest in several renewable energy sources, especially in widely available sources of biomass. This has made environmental and socio‐economic improvements possible. In recent years, biogas from biomass has increasingly been considered the most feasible alternative to energy from fossil fuel, as it allows both the possibility to reduce waste disposal treatment and the opportunity to produce green energy. Opuntia ficus‐indica (OFI) has been suggested as a possible biomass as it could represent a suitable resource for producing biomethane as a new frontier within the context of a circular economy. This study aims to define a methodology for evaluating the distribution of OFI biomass that is potentially available for biogas production by applying maximum entropy modeling in a case study of a province located in southern Italy. The geographic information system (GIS)‐based model that was developed made it possible to estimate the suitability of the species in the territory and to define specific indices at the municipal level by enabling the localization of the highest productive territorial areas. Municipalities were grouped into three different classes ranging from low to high potential ones. In future years, new municipalities could be part of the high‐potential group, due to global warming resulting from climate change. The results could be relevant to the intervention priorities established by the European Union related to the planning activities supported by the European Structural and Investment Funds within the Smart Specialization Strategy. In this regard, knowledge of the potential production and distribution of a species in a territory is highly valuable information for the quantification of the biomass potentially available for biogas production, prior to strategic planning for the improvement of the biogas sector. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd