Reduced-price Lunch Research Articles

Using Polar-ICE Data Stories to Drive Small Group Student Research Projects

For students living and learning in an urban environment, the ocean is an abstract concept. Students from The Young Women’s Leadership School of Brooklyn, an all-girls 6-12th grade public school in Bushwick, Brooklyn, comprises a population of whom 82% qualify for a free or reduced-price lunch. For various reasons, these students rarely spend time outside. When they do, it is in concrete playgrounds, not at the beach or even in a park. However, the Polar-ICE Data Stories make the ocean accessible and engaging.

Youth with Co-occurring Delinquency and Depressive Symptoms: Do They Have Better or Worse Delinquent Outcomes?

Delinquent youth often experience depression, but depression's impact on their future deviance is unclear. Using survey and social network data on a panel of 9th graders (N = 8701; Mage at baseline = 15.6; 48% male; 85% white; 18% eligible for free or reduced-price school lunch) followed throughout high school, this study tested whether depressive symptoms predicted later deviance or deviant peer affiliations among already delinquent youth. A latent class analysis revealed that 4% of respondents showed above-average levels of delinquency but not depressive symptoms, and 3% were above average on both. Compared to the delinquent-only group, the delinquent-depressed group went on to have less deviant friends, and to engage in less deviance themselves. However, peer deviance was not a reliable explanation for the reductions in respondents' own future deviance. Depressive symptoms thus may play a protective role against continued delinquency and substance use among youth who are already delinquent, but it is not because they reduce deviant peer affiliations.

Early Childhood Education and Child Care in Arizona : Is Availability Alone Sufficient?

With many states increasingly adopting Quality Rating and Improvement Systems (QRIS) to rate their early childhood education (ECE) and child care programs, researchers question the use of these systems. Specifically, they are trying to understand the value of information provided by QRIS ratings and the implications QRIS ratings have on the quality of and access to ECE and child care programs for families. In this study, we attempt to understand the value of QRIS ratings when they are provided for families at the household level. To do so we take a close look at the relationship between availability of programs rated by the Quality Improvement and Rating System (QIRS) in Arizona and demographics of the communities they serve, and compare the utilization of the programs in communities with varying demographic compositions. While we find that more high-quality ECE and child care programs are available for children that are Hispanic, Black, and eligible for free and reduced-price lunch, we also find that families underutilized those programs. We argue that this underutilization might be due to a variety of barriers that the families are experiencing and believe that efforts should be directed to work with families and assist them in understanding their enrollment options.

Access to Athletic Trainer Services in California Secondary Schools.

California is currently the only state that does not regulate who can and cannot call themselves athletic trainers (ATs). Therefore, previous national or state-specific investigations may not have provided an accurate representation of AT availability at the secondary school level in California. Similarly, it is unknown whether the factors that influence AT availability in California, such as socioeconomic status, are similar to or different from those identified in previous studies. To describe the availability of ATs certified by the Board of Certification in California secondary schools and to examine potential factors influencing access to AT services in California secondary schools. Cross-sectional study. Online survey. Representatives of 1270 California high schools. Officials from member schools completed the 2017-2018 California Interscholastic Federation Participation Census. Respondents provided information regarding school type, student and student-athlete enrollment, whether the school had ATs on staff, and whether the ATs were certified by the Board of Certification. The socioeconomic status of public and charter schools was determined using the percentage of students eligible for free or reduced-price lunch. More than half (54.6%) of schools reported that they either did not employ ATs (47.6%) or employed unqualified health personnel (UHP) in the role of AT (7.0%). Nearly 30% of student-athletes in California participated in athletics at a school that did not employ ATs (n = 191 626, 28.9%) and 8% of student-athletes participated at a school that employed UHP in the role of AT (n = 54 361, 8.2%). Schools that reported employing ATs had a lower proportion of students eligible for free or reduced-price lunch than schools that did not employ ATs and schools that employed UHP (both P values < .001). With ongoing legislative efforts to obtain regulation of ATs in California, secondary school administrators are encouraged to hire ATs with the proper certification to enhance the patient care provided to student-athletes and improve health outcomes.

Estimating Teacher Attrition for Impact Study Design

The goal of this article is to provide guidance on teacher attrition rates that can inform power analyses. The subjects were a nationally representative sample of teachers responding to the National Center for Education Statistics Schools and Staffing Survey and Teacher Follow-Up Survey (2011–2013). The findings indicate that at the national average of percent free and reduced-price lunch (FRL), approximately one in six teachers move schools or leave the profession between adjacent academic years. The odds of this type of attrition happening increase by approximately 0.8% for each 1% FRL difference (increase) of a planned study context from the national average.

How School Leadership Influences Student Learning: A Test of “The Four Paths Model”

Purpose: This study tested a set of variables mediating school leadership’s influence on students referred to as “The four paths model.” Each path in the model includes variables with significant direct effects on student learning and which are malleable to practices included in an integrated model of effective school leadership. Research Design: Evidence for the study were responses to a survey by 1,779 teachers in 81 Texas elementary schools about the status of school leadership and all 13 variables on the four paths. Student achievement data were provided by results of state tests combining all subjects and all grades, while the count and percentage of students eligible for free or reduced-price lunch was used to estimate socioeconomic status. Confirmatory factor analysis, regression analysis, and structural equation modeling were used to analyze the data. Findings: Results uncovered a more nuanced and complex set of relationships among the four paths and their component variables than was specified in the original version of the model. School leadership significantly influenced student learning only through variables on one path, while variables on the other three paths influenced student learning only through their contribution to variables on that one path. Conclusions: Results point to the value of future research about the relationships among variables on the four paths, as well as efforts to identify latent variables among the observed variables in the study. Results of the study can be used by school leaders to more productively focus their school improvement efforts.

Impact of the Community Eligibility Provision on meal counts and participation in Pennsylvania and Maryland National School Lunch Programs.

To determine whether school-level participation in the federal Community Eligibility Provision (CEP), which provides free school lunch to all students, is associated with school meal participation rates. Participation in school meals is important for decreasing food insecurity and improving child health and well-being. Quasi-experimental evaluation using negative binomial regression to predict meal count rates per student-year overall and by reimbursement level adjusted for proportion eligible for free and reduced-price lunch (FR eligibility) and operating days. Schools (grades kindergarten to 12th) participating in the National School Lunch Program (NSLP) in Maryland and Pennsylvania, USA, from the 2013-2015 (n 1762) and 2016-2017 (n 2379) school years. Administrative, school-level data on school lunch counts and student enrolment. CEP was associated with a non-significant 6 % higher total NSLP meal count adjusting for FR eligibility, enrolment and operating days (rate ratio = 1·06, 95 % CI 0·98, 1·14). After controlling for participation rates in the year prior to CEP implementation, the programme was associated with a significant 8 % increase in meal counts (rate ratio = 1·08, 95 % CI 1·03, 1·12). In both analyses, CEP was associated with lower FR meal participation and substantial increases in paid meal participation. School-level implementation of CEP is associated with increases in total school meal participation. Current funding structures may prevent broader adoption of the programme by schools with fewer students eligible for FR meals.

"Testing longitudinal associations between executive function and academic achievement": Correction to Willoughby, Wylie, and Little (2019).

Reports an error in "Testing longitudinal associations between executive function and academic achievement" by Michael T. Willoughby, Amanda C. Wylie and Michael H. Little (Developmental Psychology, 2019[Apr], Vol 55[4], 767-779). In the article, the authors report a coding error. Specifically, in the ECLS-K dataset, there are two variables that refer to free/reduced-price lunch. An incorrect variable was used to construct the free/reduced price lunch subsample, which resulted in the over-selection of students into the free/reduced-price lunch subsample (i.e., 2,830 were included but only 1,910 should have been). The authors reanalyzed all data using the corrected free/reduced price lunch subsample. While all the numerical values related to the free/reduced-price lunch subsample that were reported in the original text and tables changed, the magnitude of changes were trivial and none of the substantive conclusions made in the article changed. Updated results are available from the first author. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 2018-65595-001.) Children with higher levels of executive function (EF) skills consistently demonstrate higher levels of academic achievement. Despite the consistency of these associations, fundamental questions remain about whether efforts to improve an individual child's EF skills result in corresponding improvements in his or her academic performance. In the absence of experimental evidence, developmentalists have used repeated measures designs to test the nature, magnitude, and direction of the associations between EF skills and academic achievement. In contrast to previous studies, this study described how between- and within-person associations between EF and achievement address different questions. Using data from a subsample of participants (N = 6,040) from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Kindergarten, 2010-2011 (ECLS-K:2011) cohort, we estimated a series of latent growth curve models with structured residuals to test the between and within-person associations between 2 dimensions of EF (working memory, cognitive flexibility) and 2 domains of academic achievement (math, reading). Whereas between-person associations between EF and achievement were large (φ = .55-.91), the within-person associations were small (βs = -.10-.25). Within-person effects of earlier reading achievement on later EF skills was the most consistent finding. Results were unchanged when analyses were repeated using the subset of children who were eligible for free and reduced-price lunch, a proxy for low socioeconomic households. Results are discussed with respect to interest in improving EF skills as a means for facilitating school outcomes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

P41 The Relationship Between Unpaid School Meal Policies and Debt in Child Nutrition Programs

Background Most local education agencies (LEA) report unpaid school meal debt. Starting July 2017, the USDA required LEAs to have an unpaid meal policy. The Food & Research Action Center released best practices for unpaid meal policies, including anti-shaming strategies. Objective The purpose of this study was to evaluate the strength of unpaid meal policies and examine the relationship between the policy strength and amount of debt. Study Design, Settings, Participants In this cross-sectional, primary data collection study, Food Service Directors (FSDs) from five states were recruited to complete an online survey. FSDs submitted unpaid meal policies and reported debt from 2017-18. Policies were reviewed and scored for strength of anti-shaming statements (0 = not present, 1 = weak, 2 = strong; 25 items scored). Measureable Outcome/Analysis The main outcome was the amount of school debt from full-price and reduced-price meals. Variables examined included percent of students enrolled in free and reduced-price lunch (FRL), LEA size and classification (urban, suburban, rural). Univariate statistics were summarized, bivariate relationships were examined through chi-square analysis. Results The sample was 59 FSDs. The FRL rate across the schools was 50.1% (± 18.6); 75% were rural schools. Few schools had strong policies; almost 40% of the sample had a score less than five. The highest frequency of school meal debt (23.1%) from full price meals was between $1,001-$5,000; four schools reported > $30,000 in debt from full price meals. For debt from reduced-price meals, 46% reported $1-$500 in unpaid meals; 20% reported no debt from reduced-price meals. There were no significant relationships between the amount of unpaid meal and strength of policy. Conclusion Many schools did not have strong anti-shaming policies. Because there was no relationship between strength of policy and amount of debt, LEAs can create stronger policies without concern for its effect on increased debt. Funding None.

Combating Child Summer Food Insecurity: Examination of a Community-Based Mobile Meal Program.

Low-income children's access to meals decreases during the summer months due to losing the benefit of the free and reduced-price lunches they normally receive during the school year. Few studies critically examine community-based approaches to providing summer meals. This mixed methods study examined a mobile meal program implemented in a community with large economic disparities. Parents and caregivers who attended the mobile meal program with a child at one of three sites completed surveys that screened for risk of food insecurity and examined access and utilization of community food resources. Interviews with a representative subsample of English- and Spanish-speaking participants elicited an in-depth understanding of food insecurity in the community and perspectives on the mobile meal program. Surveys (n = 284) were completed in English (78%) and Spanish (22%). Participants identified primarily as Asian (32%), Latino/Hispanic (29%), and White (27%), with 26% screening positive for risk of food insecurity within the past 12months. Qualitative interviews (n = 36) revealed widespread support for meals served in public settings as they were perceived to be welcoming, fostered social interactions, and helped the community at large. Participants described the high cost of living as a key motivation for participating and cited immigration fears as a barrier to accessing public resources. Findings from this study suggest the importance of innovative community-based approaches to serving hard-to-reach children during the summer.

The Effects of Mindfulness Training on Wisdom in Elementary School Teachers

Aims: School teachers have hundreds of spontaneous interactions with students each hour, requiring frequent decision-making. Often these interactions require social understanding and emotional self-regulation, two constructs often identified with wisdom and mindfulness. Increasing mindfulness could aid wiser management of classroom demands. The present study evaluated effects of an online mindfulness course on measured wisdom in a sample of public elementary school teachers.&#x0D; Study Design: This study used a pretest posttest design using data collected immediately before taking the online mindfulness course and after completion of the course. End of the school year follow-up data was analyzed for all teachers.&#x0D; Place and Duration of Study: Participants were enrolled from multiple cities across the United States including Boston, Columbus, Chicago, Milwaukee, Seattle, and San Diego between June 2014 and June 2015. Data were collected online and analyzed at the University of Chicago.&#x0D; Methodology: Public elementary school teachers (n = 12) were assigned to a mindfulness training or a matched wait-list condition (11 female, 1 male; age range 26 – 57 years). Teachers had a range of teaching experiences from 1 to 36 years (median =18 years) and taught grades K-4 at schools with 30% - 50% Caucasian students with 40%-60% students receiving free and reduced-price lunches. We used standardized measures for mindfulness, wisdom, emotion regulation, compassion, theory of mind, state/trait anxiety, stress, burnout, and efficacy.&#x0D; Results: Online mindfulness training produced a significant increase in mindful awareness and changes in cognitive wisdom implying increased understanding of inter/intrapersonal concerns. There was a significant increase in mindful attention in those who completed both pre- and post-class online evaluations (n = 10) solicited by Mindful Schools (t (9) = 2.738, p = .02) from 54.3 to 59.9 following training (ΔM= 5.6, SD = 6.5). Wisdom, measured with Ardelt’s Three-Dimensional Wisdom Scale (n =12), demonstrated a significant change increase in the cognitive dimension of wisdom (t(11) = 2.39, p =.03) with a non-significant increase in the affective dimension (t(11) =1.38, p =.19) and a non-significant reduction in the reflective dimension of wisdom (t(11) =.96, p = .35) following mindfulness training.&#x0D; Conclusion: Online mindfulness training may help develop wise decision making as a skill for teachers to aid classroom management and social problem solving.

A Multivariate Analysis of Variance Investigation of School-Level RAMP Status Across Two States

Due to a dearth of research, authors conducted an ex post facto research design to investigate group differences in school-level student outcomes (e.g., achievement, suspension, and attendance rates) based on Recognized American School Counselor Association Model Program (RAMP) status. Archival data were collected from publically accessible data provided by state Departments of Education. Authors included all RAMP schools in Georgia and Virginia (n = 70) over a 5-year period. Propensity score matching was used to construct a comparison group of non-RAMP schools (n = 70) matched by district, ethnicity, and free or reduced-price lunch status. The results of multivariate analyses of variance did not reveal statistically significant differences by RAMP status based on school-level student outcomes. Authors suggest further research methods to investigate the impact of RAMP status, including the use of an ecological framework for viewing such research.

The spillover benefits of expanding access to preschool

I ask do spillover benefits exist from preschool. I exploit district and time variation in access to a state preschool program (CDEP) that targets disadvantaged four-year-olds (those eligible for free or reduced-price lunch or Medicaid). Using a difference-indifferences design, I estimate the effects by CDEP-eligibility status of CDEP exposure (residing in a CDEP district after launch at age four) on test scores. I find that CDEP benefits its targeted population and increases the math and reading scores of exposed, CDEP-ineligible students by about 0.13 and 0.14 standard deviations, respectively. These spillover effects may stem, in whole or in part, from improvements to classroom decorum via fewer behavioral disruptions.

Participation in Georgia’s Pre-K as a Predictor of Third-Grade Standardized Test Scores

Propensity score matching was used to compare third-grade test scores in English language arts, mathematics, science, and social studies for children who had and had not participated in Georgia’s Pre-K 4 years earlier. After matching, each group included 46,262 children (mean age 8.36 years in third grade). In all subject areas, children who had participated in Georgia’s Pre-K scored significantly higher (Cohen’s D = .06 to .09), and pre-K participation was associated with an 11% to 17% increase in the odds of scoring proficient or above. Among children enrolled in free or reduced-price lunch, participation in Georgia’s Pre-K was associated with higher test scores and greater likelihood of scoring proficient or above; however, the opposite was true for children not enrolled in free or reduced-price lunch. Associations between pre-K participation and math scores were stronger for children whose home language was not English as compared to those whose home language was English.

Testing longitudinal associations between executive function and academic achievement.

Children with higher levels of executive function (EF) skills consistently demonstrate higher levels of academic achievement. Despite the consistency of these associations, fundamental questions remain about whether efforts to improve an individual child's EF skills result in corresponding improvements in his or her academic performance. In the absence of experimental evidence, developmentalists have used repeated measures designs to test the nature, magnitude, and direction of the associations between EF skills and academic achievement. In contrast to previous studies, this study described how between- and within-person associations between EF and achievement address different questions. Using data from a subsample of participants (N = 6,040) from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Kindergarten, 2010-2011 (ECLS-K:2011) cohort, we estimated a series of latent growth curve models with structured residuals to test the between and within-person associations between 2 dimensions of EF (working memory, cognitive flexibility) and 2 domains of academic achievement (math, reading). Whereas between-person associations between EF and achievement were large (φ = .55-.91), the within-person associations were small (βs = -.10-.25). Within-person effects of earlier reading achievement on later EF skills was the most consistent finding. Results were unchanged when analyses were repeated using the subset of children who were eligible for free and reduced-price lunch, a proxy for low socioeconomic households. Results are discussed with respect to interest in improving EF skills as a means for facilitating school outcomes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

The Twilight of Brown: Empirical Analysis of Re-Segregation and Voluntary Adoption of School Integration Policies Across the United States

Based on the extensive work of Gary Orfield and others, scholars and legal practitioners have long known that across the United States, significant resegregation of public-school districts is occurring rapidly as states debate new modes of student assignment, increase charter school offerings, and the Supreme Court loosens rules for removing the taint of discrimination in public education. However, we lack systematic knowledge of how resegregation is being counteracted and the factors contributing to the choice of school districts to adopt voluntary desegregation plans. This empirical study attempts to fill that void. We found sixty experimental school districts that meet our strict criteria for voluntary adoption of school desegregation policies. Using student enrollment size at the school district level, we selected fifty-nine contiguous control districts that have not adopted voluntary desegregation plans for inclusion in our study. We relied on multiple analytical methods to examine the data, including correlation and logistic regression. Our findings highlight the importance of both institutional and contextual conditions in a school district’s choice of voluntary adoption of desegregation plans. Institutional factors such as the number of schools in the district, the history of court-ordered desegregation, and contextual conditions such as the proportion of students receiving free and reduced-price lunch and the race and ethnicity of students significantly explains whether a school district would adopt voluntary integration policies. We discuss the implications of our findings within the context of a Supreme Court and polity that remain split about the worthiness of school desegregation.

Physical Education Policies in US Schools: Differences by School Characteristics.

We assessed the extent to which schools in the United States implement physical education policies identified in SHAPE America's Essential Components of Physical Education document and how implementation of these policies varies by school characteristics. School policy data were collected as part of the 2014 School Health Policies and Practices Study via computer-assisted personal interviews in a nationally representative sample of K-12 schools and were linked to extant data on school characteristics. Bivariate analyses and Poisson regression model were used to examine how physical education policies differed by school characteristics. Five physical education policies varied by region and 3 varied by school level. Requiring certified, licensed, or endorsed physical education teachers varied by all school characteristics except school level and percentage of students eligible for free or reduced-price lunch. The average number of physical education policies implemented by schools was 3.0. The number of policies varied by metropolitan status and school level. The findings suggest many schools are only implementing a few of the physical education policies that can strengthen their physical education programs. These findings can be used to target professional development and technical assistance for physical education practitioners on policy and implementation.

Food, Health, & Choices: Curriculum and Wellness Interventions to Decrease Childhood Obesity in Fifth-Graders

ObjectiveTo evaluate Food, Health, & Choices, two 10-month interventions. DesignCluster-randomized, controlled study with 4 groups: curriculum, wellness, curriculum plus wellness, and control. SettingTwenty elementary schools (5/group) in New York City. ParticipantsFifth-grade students (n = 1,159). At baseline, 44.6% were at the ≥85th body mass index (BMI) percentile for age and 86% qualified for free or reduced-price lunch. InterventionCurriculum was 23 science lessons based on social cognitive and self-determination theories, replacing 2 mandated units. Wellness was classroom food policy and physical activity bouts of Dance Breaks. Main Outcome MeasuresFor obesity, age- and sex-specific BMI percentiles were used (anthropometric measures). The researchers also employed 6 energy balance-related behaviors and 8 theory-based determinants of behavior change (by questionnaire). AnalysisPairwise adjusted odds in hierarchical logistic regression models were determined for >85th BMI percentile. Behaviors and theory-based determinants were examined in a 2-level hierarchical linear model with a 2 × 2 design for intervention effects and interactions. ResultsObesity showed no change. For behaviors, there was a negative curriculum intervention change in physical activity (P = .04). The wellness intervention resulted in positive changes for sweetened beverages frequency (P = .05) and size (P = .006); processed packaged snacks size (P = .01); candy frequency (P = .04); baked good frequency (P = .05); and fast food frequency (P = .003), size (P = .01), and combo meals (P = .002). Theory-based determinants demonstrated no change. Conclusions and ImplicationsThe findings of the lack of a decrease in obesity, behavior changes only for the wellness intervention, and no changes in theory-based determinants warrant further research.

Which New Yorkers vote with their wallets? The impact of teacher quality data on household sorting, and residential and school demographics

This paper examines the relationship between the February 2012 New York City teacher quality data release, the racial and ethnic composition of elementary and middle public schools and their neighborhoods, and housing prices. A unique dataset that links teacher quality to school characteristics, housing prices and characteristics, and Census data is used to estimate a difference-in-difference model to estimate the impact of the teacher quality release on housing prices. These results are then used to estimate the impact of the data release on residential and school demographics. The results in this study provide the first evidence of the effects of teacher quality measures on the housing market in New York City and the demographic shifts in residential and school mobility patterns as a result. The data suggests that the housing market responds significantly to the new information that was provided by the release of the teacher quality information, even when taking into consideration the school grades and other variables that may influence teacher quality measures. The magnitude of how much housing prices increase is greatly impacted by certain neighborhood demographics and the results show that Hispanic neighborhoods with a high proportion of free and reduced price lunch students are among the neighborhoods that had the highest increase in housing prices due to the teacher quality release. Not only that, but the areas that had the highest increase in housing prices due to the teacher quality release have experienced increases in the proportion of white students and the neighborhoods are becoming more racially diverse.

Selection and consumption of lunches by National School Lunch Program participants

The Healthy, Hunger-Free Kids Act of 2010 requires schools participating in the National School Lunch Program (NSLP) to offer a variety of healthy food options each day. Using digital photography data collected from two suburban elementary schools in the spring of 2013, we examine NSLP participant's selection and consumption of all five NSLP lunch components ((1) milk, (2) vegetable, (3) fruit, (4) meat/meat alternate (MA), and (5) grain). We use logit regressions to analyze the selection of the various lunch components by race/ethnicity, gender, grade, and household income level. In addition, ordinary least squares regressions are used to analyze the selection and consumption of calories contained in the chosen lunch and by lunch component. Selection and consumption varied by race, ethnicity, gender, and eligibility for free or reduced-price lunch. For example, black students consumed fewer calories than white students, black and Hispanic students consumed fewer calories from milk than white students, and free and reduced-price lunch eligible students consumed more calories from milk and fewer calories from grains. Using National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) data, we determine that school lunches are an important part of school-day food intake for NSLP participants. These results provide guidance for making changes within a cafeteria's offerings to increase the selection of healthy foods.