Particle Size Reduction Research Articles

Improving the pozzolanic reactivity of clay, marl and obsidian through mechanochemical or thermal activation

This research investigated the physicochemical properties and pozzolanic reactivity of mechanochemically and thermally treated clay, marl, and obsidian as supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs). The results suggest that the mechanochemical treatment of clay and marl resulted in delamination, dehydroxylation, and amorphisation of the mineral components (including calcite); while for obsidian, the main effect was particle size reduction. Among all samples prepared, the mechanochemically treated obsidian exhibited the best performance as a SCM and achieved marginally higher strength performance at 20% cement replacement compared with the CEM I cement mortar (with on SCM). The thermally activated clay and marl exhibited highest pozzolanic reactivity than the mechanochemically treated counterparts owning to the formation of free lime from calcination of calcite. However, the mechanochemically treated clay and marl were still able to achieve over 80% of the strength activity index and performed much better than the untreated materials. These results indicate that mechanochemical treatment can effectively improve the pozzolanic reactivity of clay minerals that contain calcite up to 68% without directly emitting process CO2 to the environment (calcination of carbonates), which can be an alternative activation route to the high-temperature calcination-treatment method.

Solidifying Fenofibrate Nanocrystal Suspension: A Scalable Approach via Granulation Method

The pharmaceutical industry has highlighted particle-size reduction via preparing aqueous suspensions containing nano- or submicron drug particles. Owing to the risk of agglomeration and complications during the manufacturing of solid dosage forms, the problems associated with the solidification of nanosuspensions need to be addressed. Herein, the nanocrystallized suspension of fenofibrate (Feno) was prepared using the wet-milling technique, and then two solidification methods, mixing (liquid mixing) and granulation (dry powder blending and wet massing) methods, were investigated. The solidification process involved the adsorption of Feno as a very thin layer on the high-surface-area Florite® to prevent drug accumulation. The critical quality attributes, particle size and dissolution rate, were performed. Infrared spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, differential scanning calorimetry, and scanning electron microscopy were also used to monitor the existence and physical state of drug molecules in the carrier. The final solidified powders and tablets containing Feno nanocrystals improved the dissolution profile (>90% in 15 min), in which the physical properties of Feno were maintained during solidification and tableting. In general, the granulation method is more advantageous than the mixing method in terms of maintaining amorphous proportion and dissolution rate. These results implied a potential approach for manufacturing solid dosage forms from nanoscale products.

Environmentally friendly synthesis of In2O3 nano octahedrons by cellulose nanofiber template-assisted route and their potential application for O3 gas sensing

Cellulose has recently been utilized as a green and eco-friendly substrate template for synthesizing semiconductor oxide materials. This paper introduces a novel and sustainable method for obtaining In2O3 nano octahedrons, using cellulose nanofibers (CNF) as sacrificial templates. To demonstrate the importance and advantages of the CNF template, a parallel synthesis was conducted under the same conditions, but with no CNF. The as-prepared In2O3 compounds were thoroughly characterized by XRD, SEM, and XPS techniques. The CNF template-assisted route resulted in an approximately 3000 % particle size reduction and a narrow distribution compared to the sample prepared with no CNF as a template. Notably, the sensing performance towards ozone (O3) gas was also substantially enhanced in the CNF template-assisted sample and a significantly higher response (Rg/Ra = 42 @ 70 ppb O3) was observed compared to the In2O3 sample with no CNF (Rg/Ra = 3.5 @ 70 ppb O3). Furthermore, sensors based on CNF-assisted In2O3 octahedra synthesis showed greater selectivity towards O3 than towards NO2, another oxidizing gas, and a relatively lower operation temperature (200 °C). The enhancement in gas sensing properties for O3 detection was attributed mainly to the higher concentration of chemically adsorbed oxygen species and surface defects, such as oxygen vacancies, which were promoted by the reduction in the particle size and the removal of CNF, respectively. The sustainable and CNF template-assisted approach represents a promising result for environmentally-friendly synthesis and advanced gas sensing applications.

Preparation of housefly (Musca domestica) larvae protein hydrolysates: Influence of dual-sweeping-frequency ultrasound-assisted enzymatic hydrolysis on yield, antioxidative activity, functional and structural attributes

Dual-sweeping-frequency ultrasound (DSFU) was utilized in the preparation of polypeptides from housefly (Musca domestica) larvae protein (HLP). Results indicated that ultrasonication (20 ± 2/28 ± 2 kHz, 42 W/L, 25 min) significantly increased peptide yield and DPPH scavenging capacity by 8.25 % and 14.83 %, respectively. Solubility, foaming and emulsification properties of polypeptides were improved by 19.89 %, 33.33 % and 38.74 % over the control; along with notable reduction in particle size and increase in zeta potential. Tertiary structural changes of the sonicated hydrolysates were illustrated by UV and fluorescence spectra. FTIR showed that ultrasonication increased α-helix, β-turn, and random coil by 38.23 %, 46.35 % and 16.36 %, respectively, but decreased β-sheet by 48.03 %, indicating partial unfolding in HLP hydrolysate conformation and reduction in intermolecular interactions. The research results demonstrated that dual-sweeping-frequency ultrasonication has a great prospect in industry application for the purpose of improving enzymolysis efficiency and product quality for housefly larvae protein hydrolysates production.

Synthesis of Silica Nanoparticle Made from Lampung Pumice Modified with Sonication Parameters for Size and Purity

This study aims to determine the effect of sonication process parameters on the formation of the size and purity of silica from the synthesis of pumice. Pumice reflux process using NaOH for 24 hrs. Titrate using 5M H2SO4 solution to pH 7 and a white gel is formed. The residue was washed using distilled water and dried at 100 oC for 24 hrs. The residue was then stirred with 1M HCl solution for 4 hrs. After the synthesis process, the silica powder was then subjected to a sonication process with temperature variations of 30, 60, and 80 oC for 1, 2, and 3 hrs. The purity of silica was evaluated from the results of x-ray fluorescence, x-ray defragment, and SEM test results. The results of the analysis of variance showed that the independent variable temperature contributed 67.25% and had a significant effect on the SiO2 concentration. The two sonication variables, temperature and time, contributed 50.31% and 46.24%, respectively. The variables significant effect on particle size. Other independent variables affect the SiO2 concentration by 10.36%. The sonication process can increassed concentration and reduced particle size of silica synthesized by selecting the appropriate independent variable.

Ultra-High Energy Density LiFePO4 Electrodes

Olivine structured LiFePO4 (LFP) has attracted significant attention as a promising cathode material for LIBs. An advantage of using LFP compared to other cathode chemistries (i.e., NMC, LCO & LNO) is that iron is naturally abundant, making LFP low in cost, environmental impact, and toxicity.1,2 Though LFP has high thermal stability and excellent cycle life, it suffers from poor electronic conductivity and low Li+ ion diffusion which have been improved by carbon coating and reducing particle sizes to nanometres (<1 µm), respectively.3 To improve the energy density of LFP electrodes we have developed ultra-dense LFP electrodes with densities in excess of 2.7 g/cm3 to be achieved with high loadings (15 mg/cm3) and with electrode formulations containing 90% LFP active material. This corresponds to an electrode porosity of only 14% and, as shown in Figure 1(a), represents a volumetric energy density increase of about 27% compared to conventional LFP. Moreover, as shown in Figure 1(b), ultra-high density LFP electrodes were found to have higher coulombic efficiency than conventional calendered LFP electrodes with lower densities. Voltage polarization was also found to be reduced. Lastly, Figure 1(c) shows an approximate 4 times reduction in charge transfer resistance for an ultra-dense LFP electrode with respect to a conventional calendered LFP electrode. The ability to make highly dense LFP electrodes could have profound impacts, allowing for Li-ion cells to be made with low costs and low environmental impact LFP, while achieving volumetric energy densities approaching that of Li-ion cells employing layered oxide cathodes. References X. Ren et al., J. Electrochem. Soc., 167, 130523 (2020). L. Wen, X. Hu, H. Luo, F. Li, and H. Cheng, Particuology, 22, 24–29 (2015). L.-X. Yuan et al., Energy Environ. Sci., 4, 269–284 (2011). Figure 1

Preparation of Food Samples Using Homogenization and Microwave-Assisted Wet Acid Digestion for Multi-Element Determination with ICP-MS.

Sample preparation is crucial for elemental determination, and various techniques are available, one of which involves homogenization followed by acid digestion. Special care is required during sample handling in the preparation stage to eliminate or minimize potential contamination and analyte loss. Homogenization is a process that simultaneously reduces particle size and uniformly distributes sample components. Following homogenization, the sample undergoes acid digestion, wherein it is digested with acids and auxiliary chemicals at elevated temperatures, transforming solid samples into a liquid state. In this process, metals in the original sample react with acids to form water-soluble salts. Samples prepared through acid digestion are suitable for elemental analysis using techniques such as inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry, inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy, atomic absorption spectroscopy, electrochemical methods, and other analytical techniques. This work details the preparation of food samples for multi-element determination using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. The step-by-step procedure involves the homogenization process using a laboratory-sized mixer with ceramic blades, followed by acid digestion in closed vessels using microwave-assisted wet acid digestion. A mixture of 5.0 mL of 68 wt% HNO3 and 1.0 mL of 30 wt% H2O2 serves as an auxiliary reagent. This guide provides an explanation of the processes involved in both stages.

Preparation, structural and functional characterization of corn peptide-chelated calcium microcapsules using synchronous dual frequency ultrasound

The utilization of peptide-chelated calcium is low due to the influence of factors such as solubility, heat and digestive environmental conditions; therefore, it is crucial to protect, prolong and stabilize this nutrient in order to enhance its efficacy. This study was conducted to prepare corn peptide-chelated calcium microcapsules using β-cyclodextrin (β-CD) as the wall material through an improved ultrasonic-assisted method. The structure, solubility, thermal stability, and in vitro gastrointestinal digestion of these microcapsules were thoroughly investigated and analyzed. The microcapsules were prepared using the following recommended conditions: a chelate concentration of 5 mg/mL, a mass ratio of chelate to β-CD of 1:8 g/g, and a synchronous dual-frequency ultrasound (20/28 kHz) at a power of 75 W, a duty ratio of 20/5 s/s, and a time of 20 min. These specific parameters were carefully selected to ensure the optimal fabrication of the microcapsules. The results showed that the utilization of dual-frequency ultrasound resulted in a significant increase in both the encapsulation rate and yield, which were enhanced by 15.84 % and 15.68 %, respectively, reaching impressive values of 79.17 % and 90.60 %. Moreover, the results of the structure index analysis provided further confirmation that ultrasonic treatment had a significant impact on the structure of the microcapsules, leading to a noticeable reduction in particle size and transformation into nanoparticles. Furthermore, the microcapsules demonstrated excellent solubility within a wide pH range of 2 to 10, with solubility ranging from 93.54 % to 88.68 %. Additionally, these microcapsules exhibited remarkable thermal stability, retaining a minimum of 84.8 % of their stability when exposed to temperatures ranging from 40 to 80 °C. Moreover, during gastric and intestinal digestion, these microcapsules exhibited a high slow-release rate of 44.66 % and 51.6 %, indicating their ability to gradually release calcium contents. The inclusion of dual-frequency ultrasound in the preparation of high calcium microcapsules yielded promising outcomes. Overall, our work presents a novel method for synthesizing corn peptide-chelated calcium microcapsules with desirable properties such as good solubility, excellent thermal stability, and a significant slow-release effect. These microcapsules have the potential to serve as fortified high calcium supplements.

Significant Progress in Improving Atorvastatin Dissolution Rate: Physicochemical Characterization and Stability Assessment of Self-Dispersible Atorvastatin/Tween 80® Nanocrystals Formulated through Wet Milling and Freeze-Drying

Atorvastatin (ATV) is a first-line drug for the treatment of hyperlipidemia. This drug presents biopharmaceutical problems, partly due to its low solubility and dissolution rate. In this work, nanocrystals of ATV stabilized with Tween 80® were designed by wet milling. A full factorial design was applied to optimize the process. Additionally, a cryoprotectant agent (maltodextrin, MTX) was identified, which allowed maintaining the properties of the nanocrystals after lyophilization. The storage stability of the nanocrystals was demonstrated for six months in different conditions. The obtained nanocrystal powder was characterized using SEM, EDXS, TEM, DSC, TGA, FT-IR, and XRD, showing the presence of irregular crystals with semi-amorphous characteristics, likely due to the particle collision process. Based on the reduction in particle size and the decrease in drug crystallinity, a significant increase in water and phosphate buffer (pH 6.8) solubility by 4 and 6 times, respectively, was observed. On the other hand, a noticeable increase in the dissolution rate was observed, with 90% of the drug dissolved within 60 minutes of study, compared to 30% of the drug dissolved within 12 hours in the case of the untreated drug or the physical mixture of components. Based on these results, it can be concluded that the nano-milling of Atorvastatin stabilized with Tween 80® is a promising strategy for developing new formulations with improved biopharmaceutical properties of this widely used drug.

Novel evidence on iodoacetic acid-induced immune protein functional and conformational changes: Focusing on cellular and molecular aspects

Elevated levels of iodide occur in raw water in certain regions, where iodination disinfection byproducts are formed during chloramine-assisted disinfection of naturally iodide-containing water. Iodoacetic acid (IAA) is one of the typical harmful products. The mechanisms underlying IAA-induced immunotoxicity and its direct effects on biomolecules remained unclear in the past. Cellular, biochemical, and molecular methods were used to investigate the mechanism of IAA-induced immunotoxicity and its binding to lysozyme. In the presence of IAA, the cell viability of coelomocytes was significantly reduced to 70.8 %, as was the intracellular lysozyme activity. Upon binding to IAA, lysozyme underwent structural and conformational changes, causing elongation and unfolding of the protein due to loosening of the backbone and polypeptide chains. IAA effectively quenched the fluorescence of lysozyme and induced a reduction in particle sizes. Molecular docking revealed that the catalytic residue, Glu 35, which is crucial for lysozyme activity, resided within the docking range, suggesting the preferential binding of IAA to the active site of lysozyme. Moreover, electrostatic interaction emerged as the primary driving force behind the interaction between IAA and lysozyme. In conclusion, the structural and conformational changes induced by IAA in lysozyme resulted in impaired immune protein function in coelomocytes, leading to cellular dysfunction.

Microstructure evolution of FD-POEM powders during high-temperature plasma spheroidization

The freeze–dry pulsated orifice ejection method (FD-POEM) can be coupled with plasma spheroidization (PS) as an advanced approach for fabricating spherical refractory powders used in laser additive manufacturing. However, the microstructure evolution of FD-POEM powders, which include components of various melting points, during ultrahigh-temperature PS treatment remains unclear. In this work, the morphology, chemical composition, and microstructure of MoSiBTiC alloy powders, as representative PS powders, were systematically investigated. The mesh-structured FD-POEM powders underwent complete densification, resulting in a 52 % reduction in particle size. The PS powders were composed of coarse solid solution Mo (Moss) and fine eutectic Mo5SiB2/TiC phases, consistent with the composition of additively manufactured MoSiBTiC alloys. With an increase in Si content, the volume fraction of fine Mo5SiB2 phases increased, resulting in increased Vickers hardness. Notably, the oxygen content of FD-POEM powders decreased by > 99 %, owing to the effective elimination of surface oxides on the initial elemental powders during ultrahigh-temperature PS treatment. This research provides an innovative approach for reducing the oxygen content in refractory powders to be used for additive manufacturing. Enhanced understanding of the microstructure evolution of PS powders can facilitate the composition optimization of refractory powders and development of a microstructure–property database for additively manufactured materials.

Emerging CeO2/Bi24O31Cl10/Bi3O4Cl ternary-hetero-assembly nanophotocatalyst for superior sunlight-irradiated photo-elimination of quinolone antibiotics: Microwave combustion-assisted sono-induced-hydrothermal synthesis

This study aimed to introduce emerging CeO2/Bi24O31Cl10/Bi3O4Cl ternary-hetero-assembly nanophotocatalysts through the fabrication process of microwave combustion-assisted sono-induced-hydrothermal (MCSH). Various characterization techniques were conducted to determine the properties of the resulting nanophotocatalysts synthesized at different weighted ratios. The CeO2/Bi24O31Cl10/Bi3O4Cl-MCSH nanophotocatalyst which weighted ratio of CeO2 to Bi24O31Cl10/Bi3O4Cl is 3:1 showed a broad absorption range in the sunlight region and demonstrated tremendous performance in the removal of emerging contaminants such as norfloxacin (NOR) (87.6%), levofloxacin (70.2%), ofloxacin (66.2%) and ciprofloxacin-HCl (57.9%) after 180 min irradiation. In contrast, the CeO2/Bi24O31Cl10/Bi3O4Cl (3:1)-MCH sample, without ultrasound irradiation nanophotocatalyst, showed lower photocatalytic destruction such as norfloxacin 77.3%. As a result, it can be said that the presence of ultrasonic energy has led to particle size reduction and increased dispersion, resulting in a decrease in peak intensity based on XRD analysis. The DRS analysis showed that the optimal nanocomposite exhibited two distinct absorption edges at 415.6 and 487.8 nm, indicating that the desired composite had indeed been formed as well as the TEM signifies a consistent and evenly dispersed distribution of CeO2 particles and Bi24O31Cl10/Bi3O4Cl plates of nanomaterial's prepared with ultrasound energy. The BET-BJH of surface characteristics and pore distribution indicates that the pores' dimensions in the CeO2-MC, CeO2/Bi24O31Cl10/Bi3O4Cl (3:1)-MCH, CeO2/Bi24O31Cl10/Bi3O4Cl (3:1)-MCSH, and Bi24O31Cl10/Bi3O4Cl -MC samples span meso to macro. The average pore sizes for these nano-sized photocatalysts are approximately 21.4, 23.8, 22.1, and 5.4 nm, correspondingly. The remarkable efficiency and reusable nature of the CeO2/Bi24O31Cl10/Bi3O4Cl (3:1)-MCSH nanophotocatalyst could be assigned to its well-balanced phases and the use of the sonication during its preparation.

A novel multi-reactor system for thermochemical heat storage through detailed modeling of K2CO3 particles

Thermochemical energy storage (TCES) is becoming increasingly important in the energy transition, as it can effectively bridge the gap between renewable energy supply and demand. In this study, the reaction kinetics of K2CO3 were characterized and validated. Based on this kinetic model, a numerical model of a packed bed of particles was developed using a coupled CFD-DEM approach. The results of the model were validated against experimental data of a particle bed, showing good agreement. The reaction rate of the system was found to be limited by the diffusion of water vapor into the material, which led to unsatisfactory performance on the bed scale due to significant temperature drop-offs. Although reducing particle size was found to be an effective way to improve system performance, practical concerns such as agglomeration and bed permeability limited its effectiveness. As an alternative, a multi-reactor system with adaptive flow rates was proposed, which improved system performance without the limitations of reducing particle size. The proposed modular system is capable of delivering 10 kW power at the temperature of 45 degrees for a duration of 19.5 h.

High efficiency upcycling of post-consumer acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene via plasma-assisted mechanochemistry

Recycling plastic waste has become of utmost importance due to the escalating volume of waste from electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE). Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS), with its superior impact strength and many applications, constitutes a significant portion of WEEE. Although diverse approaches to recycling ABS have been developed, there remains an unmet need to enhance the mechanical properties of post-consumer recycled ABS with high recycling efficiency. The major hurdle to recycling ABS is caused by the thermo-oxidative degradation of the butadiene phase and phase separation between ABS and additives, which reduce the impact strength. Conventional methods employed compatibilizers and organic solvents to improve the compatibility between ABS and additives. Nevertheless, these approaches typically consume large amount of solvents, and thereby have limitations in terms of process feasibility, recycling efficiency, and environmental considerations. Here, we used plasma-assisted mechanochemistry (PMC) to upcycle post-consumer ABS through blending it with styrene-butadiene-styrene (SBS) to enhance its mechanical properties. By concurrently applying high-energy mechanical forces and plasma gases in a dry condition, PMC induced chemical bond between oxidatively degraded ABS and radical-formed SBS chain. The improved interfacial affinity led to an overall homogeneous distribution of SBS particles within the ABS matrix, resulting in a reduction in particle size. Therefore, the PMC-processed upcycled ABS blends could endure high external forces with enhanced impact strength and elongation at break. Consequently, our PMC-based approach demonstrates an upcycling process of post-consumer ABS with high recycling efficiency that is also eco-friendly.

Preparation and properties of calcium aluminum silicate hydrate–polycarboxylate nanocomposites (CASH–PCE)

The CSH–PCE additive provides more nucleation area for cement to hydrate more quickly. Al3+ has been proven to enter the CSH structure and influence the composition and morphology. In this paper, CASH–PCE nanocomposites (CPNs) with different Al/Si ratios are synthesized at different PCE concentrations using a co-precipitation method. And the effect of various systems of CPNs on the workability, hydration kinetics, pore structure, and mechanical properties of cementitious materials are studied. In the results, PCE is observed to adsorb onto CASH surfaces, and with an increase in PCE concentration, the adsorption of PCE increases, leading to a reduction in CPNs particle size and an enhancement in the workability of cement. Al3+ can regulate the particle size of CPNs by affecting the adsorption capacity of PCE. The study on the hydration kinetics shows that the smaller particle size of CPNs has a more obvious promoting effect on cement hydration.

Characterization and effect of mechanical and thermal activation in mining tailings for use as supplementary cementitious material

The objective of this work is to evaluate the potential use of gold and silver tailings (GST) as Supplementary Cementitious Material (SCM). Physical, chemical, and mineralogical characteristics of GST were evaluated. Based on the initial characterization of GST, mechanical and thermal activation were proposed to improve GST reactivity. The effect of both activation processes in crystallite size and Full Width at Half Maximum (FWHM) were determined by X-Ray Diffraction (XRD). Mechanical activation at 140 min of milling and thermal activation at 1000 °C allowed the most significant reduction of crystallite size and particle size. The unconfined compressive strength (UCS) and the Strength Activity Index (SAI) were tested in mortar cubes partially substituted with activated tailings. Results showed that 10, 15, and 20 wt% substitution with activated tailings exceed the 75% SAI according to ASTM standards. Micrographs showed the presence of a calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) gel rich matrix in experimental mortars.

Effects of addition of Clitocybe squamulose on nutrients and formation of micro-nanoparticles in Chinese three-yellow chicken soup

Clitocybe squamulose, as a nutritious edible fungus, is widely distributed in Wutai Mountain (Shanxi, China), and is rarely used for stewing chicken soup. Here, the effects of Clitocybe squamulose addition on Chinese three-yellow chicken soup quality were analyzed. The results showed that Clitocybe squamulose addition significantly increased the contents of soluble solid matter, water-soluble protein, total sugar, 5′-GMP (guanosine-5′-monophosphate disodium salt), umami and sweet free amino acids (P < 0.05), increased the absolute value of Zeta potential, and reduced particle size of fat and protein micro-nano particles (MNPs) in chicken soup. Due to Clitocybe squamulose addition improving emulsification performance of chicken soup, MNPs became more stable and evenly dispersed. In summary, Clitocybe squamulose endowed chicken soup with higher nutritional value and improved MNPs distribution in chicken soup. Therefore, Clitocybe squamulose is an excellent natural material that can effectively improve the quality of chicken soup, exhibiting a promising application prospect.

Enhancing pea protein isolate functionality: A comparative study of high-pressure homogenization, ultrasonic treatment, and combined processing techniques

Pea protein has attracted widespread attention due to its high nutritional value, low allergenicity, non-GMO status, and broad availability. However, compared to animal proteins, pea protein has inferior functional properties, which limits its application in the food industry. This study used pea protein isolate (PPI) as the main raw material and investigated the effects of high-pressure homogenization (HPH), ultrasonic treatment (US), and the combination of the two in different orders on the structure and function of PPI. The results showed that HPH or US promoted the transformation of PPI insoluble suspension into a uniform protein dispersion, significantly reducing particle size, unfolding the spatial structure, exposing more amino acid residues. These structural changes resulted in a substantial increase in the solubility, foaming capacity and emulsifying activity of PPI. Moreover, the combined treatments further impacted the properties of PPI, largely depending on the order of the processing steps; the combination of HPH-US exhibited the best functional characteristics.

"Optimizing Pharmaceutical Formulations: Advancements in Nanosuspension Pre-Formulation to Enhance Solubility and Bioavailability of Active Agents"

This study aimed to enhance the bioavailability of a poorly water soluble drug by developing a nanosuspension through an innovative formulation method. The nanosuspension was produced with meticulous attention to the materials reliability and excellent quality. Nepafenac was characterised in the pre-formulation study by establishing its melting point, solubility in different solvents, organoleptic properties, and creating a calibration curve. We utilised UV spectroscopy to determine the maximum wavelength (?max) of Nepafenac and construct a standard calibration curve in ethanol. To ensure the compatibility of the medicine with the polymers (Pluronic F127 and HPMC E 5), Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) was utilised for drug interaction analysis. The nanosuspension was produced using the solvent diffusion approach. The effect of different concentrations of Poloxamer 407 and HPMC E 5 on the formulation's effectiveness was investigated experimentally using a 32 complete factorial design. We used Response Surface Methodology (RSM) and statistical analysis to enhance the formulation concerning in vitro release, particle size, and viscosity. The pre-formulation characteristics of Nepafenac met the standards outlined in the Pharmacopoeial regulations. The maximum absorption wavelength (?max) of Nepafenac was confirmed by UV spectroscopy, and a reliable calibration curve was created. The FTIR analysis showed no chemical interaction between the medicine and polymers. RSM and experimental design indicated that Poloxamer 407 and HPMC E 5 had a substantial impact on the performance of the nanosuspension. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) confirmed the model and parameters that influence controlled drug release percentage, particle size, and viscosity. Optimal conditions for enhancing drug delivery and reducing particle size were determined by the analysis of contour and response surface plots. The optimal parameter values, as indicated in the desirability plots, closely matched the anticipated values. The experimentation confirmed the viability and effectiveness of the nanosuspension formulation generated based on the RSM findings.

Revealing the role of λ-carrageenan on the enhancement of gel-related properties of acid-induced soy protein isolate/λ-carrageenan system

This work explored the pivotal role of λ-carrageenan in fortifying the gel structure, consequently enhancing gel-related attributes within an acid-induced soy protein isolate/λ-carrageenan system (SPI/Car). The model system was prepared by subjecting a thermally treated mixture of these two biopolymers to acidification. Small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) and chemical force analysis unveiled the profound influence of hydrogen bonding and electrostatic interactions in the formation of the intricate network architecture of SPI/Car gels. Remarkably, λ-carrageenan interacted with the hydrophilic groups on the surface of agglomerated SPI particles, effectively composing the fundamental framework of SPI/Car gels. Simultaneously, λ-carrageenan emerged as a linchpin through hydrogen bonding, establishing pivotal crosslinking connections. The introduction of λ-carrageenan resulted in a reduction in SPI particle size, the dispersion of previously formed aggregates, and a subtle blurring of the SPI particles. It also significantly heightened the prevalence of hydrogen bonding and electrostatic interactions, ultimately giving rise to a robust yet somewhat coarse gel structure, as evidenced by confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM). These profound structural alterations underpinned the enhancement of water-holding capacity (WHC) and gel hardness in SPI/Car gels. These findings hold promise for the rational design and application of SPI-based systems in the production of processed vegetarian and vegan foods.