Reducing Transport Emissions Research Articles

Quantifying the contributions of various emission sources to black carbon and assessment of control strategies in western China

In this study, an air quality model WRF-Chem (Weather Research and Forecasting Chemistry) was used to simulate meteorological conditions and surface black carbon (BC) concentrations in the western China from June 2016 to May 2017, given emissions from various sources in Asia. Comparison between simulations and measurements in western China showed that the model can capture the key spatial and temporal features of meteorological elements and surface BC concentrations. The modeling framework was then used to quantify the relative contributions of different emission sectors to BC concentrations via sensitivity experiments. Our results show that the residential emission sector presented the largest contribution in western China. The second largest contributor for the highly populated mega-cities (HM) region including Sichuan and Guanzhong basins, and for the remote background (RB) region covering the central part of the Tibetan Plateau (TP), was the industrial sector and the transportation sector, respectively. Power plants and open biomass burning sources played minor roles in the regional BC concentration. The seasonality of BC concentrations showed higher values in winter, mainly due to the residential winter heating under conditions of lower precipitation scavenging and poor boundary layer mixing. A further evaluation of emission control strategies shows that a 50% reduction of residential emissions caused annual mean surface BC concentrations in the RB and HM regions to decrease by 36.2% and 36.7%, respectively. In contrast, a 50% reduction in industrial emissions or transportation emissions led to less than 12% decreases in both regions. The 50% reduction of transportation emissions caused BC concentrations to decrease by 9.2% in the RB region, larger than the 5.9% decrease caused by a 50% reduction of industrial emissions. Transportation emissions were responsible for more BC pollution than industrial emissions for the RB region, in contrast to the highly-industrialized HM region. Therefore, more attention should be paid to transportation emissions when designing control strategies for air pollution over the TP. The results from this work provide useful information for local governments to prepare and implement air pollution guidelines in western China.

Integrated assessment modelling as a positive science: private passenger road transport policies to meet a climate target well below 2 \u2218C

Transport generates a large and growing component of global greenhouse gas emissions contributing to climate change. Effective transport emissions reduction policies are needed in order to reach a climate target well below 2 ∘C. Representations of technology evolution in current integrated assessment models (IAM) make use of systems optimisations that may not always provide sufficient insight on consumer response to realistic policy packages for extensive use in policy-making. Here, we introduce FTT: transport, an evolutionary technology diffusion simulation model for road transport technology, as an IAM sub-component, which features sufficiently realistic features of consumers and of existing technological trajectories that enables to simulate the impact of detailed climate policies in private passenger road transport. Integrated to the simulation-based macroeconometric IAM E3ME-FTT, a plausible scenario of transport decarbonisation is given, defined by a detailed transport policy package, that reaches sufficient emissions reductions to achieve the 2 ∘C target of the Paris Agreement.

Impact of residential combustion and transport emissions on air pollution in Santiago during winter

Santiago (33.5°S, 70.5°W), the capital of Chile, is frequently affected by extreme air pollution events during wintertime deteriorating air quality (AQ) and thus affecting the health of its population. Intense residential heating and on-road transport emissions combined with poor circulation and vertical mixing are the main factors responsible for these events. A modelling system composed of a chemistry-transport model (CHIMERE) and a meteorological model (WRF) was implemented to assess the AQ impacts of residential and transportation sources in the Santiago basin. A two-week period of July 2015 with various days with poor AQ was simulated focusing on the impact on AQ with respect to fully inhalable particles (PM2.5) and nitrogen oxides (NOX). Three emission scenarios, within the range of targeted reductions of the decontamination plan of Santiago, were tested; namely 50% reduction of residential emission, 50% reduction of transport emissions and the combination of both. An additional scenario decreasing transport emissions in 10% was carried out to examine whether a linear dependence of surface concentrations on changes in emissions exists.The system was validated against surface and vertically resolved meteorological measurements. The model reproduces the daily surface concentration variability from the AQ monitoring network of Santiago. However, the model not fully captures the emissions variations inferred from the observations which may be due to missing sources such as resuspension of dust.Results show that, during the period studied, although both residential and transportation sources contribute to observed AQ levels in Santiago, reducing transport emissions is more effective in terms of reducing the number of days with pollution events than decreasing residential combustion. This difference in impact is largely due to the spatial distribution of the emission sources. While most of the residential combustion is emitted in the outskirts of the city, most of the transport emissions occur within the city, where most of the stations from AQ monitoring network of Santiago are located. As can be expected, the largest improvement of AQ in Santiago is achieved by the combined reduction of emissions in both sectors. Sensitivity analysis with 10% reduction in transport emissions reveals a linear behavior between emissions and concentrations for NOX and approximate linear behavior for PM2.5. The absence of secondary aerosols formation and dust resuspension in the current simulation could explain this deviation from linearity for fine particles. Nevertheless, it suggests that the results can be used for mitigation policies with emissions reductions below the 50% used in this study.

Research on Measurement of Carbon Emissions and Scenarios of Emission Reduction Based on Energy Structure

It analyzed the total energy consumption and energy structure in transportation. Then it elaborated carbon emission accounting method, energy activity data and carbon emission factor in detail. It made an empirical analysis of the emission measurement model and verifies the applicability of the measurement methods used China's transportation data. Finally, it analyzed the scenarios of China's transport emissions reduction. The results show that the total energy consumption of transportation in China will continue to increase. Optimizing the energy structure could regulate the growth trend of carbon emissions effectively and can increase the emission reduction potential through relevant energy policies.

Impacts of transportation sector emissions on future U.S. air quality in a changing climate. Part II: Air quality projections and the interplay between emissions and climate change

In Part II of this work we present the results of the downscaled offline Weather Research and Forecasting/Community Multiscale Air Quality (WRF/CMAQ) model, included in the “Technology Driver Model” (TDM) approach to future U.S. air quality projections (2046–2050) compared to a current-year period (2001–2005), and the interplay between future emission and climate changes. By 2046–2050, there are widespread decreases in future concentrations of carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx = NO + NO2), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), ammonia (NH3), sulfur dioxide (SO2), and particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter ≤ 2.5 μm (PM2.5) due mainly to decreasing on-road vehicle (ORV) emissions near urban centers as well as decreases in other transportation modes that include non-road engines (NRE). However, there are widespread increases in daily maximum 8-hr ozone (O3) across the U.S., which are due to enhanced greenhouse gases (GHG) including methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2) under the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) A1B scenario, and isolated areas of larger reduction in transportation emissions of NOx compared to that of VOCs over regions with VOC-limited O3 chemistry. Other notable future changes are reduced haze and improved visibility, increased primary organic to elemental carbon ratio, decreases in PM2.5 and its species, decreases and increases in dry deposition of SO2 and O3, respectively, and decreases in total nitrogen (TN) deposition. There is a tendency for transportation emission and CH4 changes to dominate the increases in O3, while climate change may either enhance or mitigate these increases in the west or east U.S., respectively. Climate change also decreases PM2.5 in the future. Other variable changes exhibit stronger susceptibility to either emission (e.g., CO, NOx, and TN deposition) or climate changes (e.g., VOC, NH3, SO2, and total sulfate deposition), which also have a strong dependence on season and specific U.S. regions.

Institutional arrangements for greater inter-modality between bicycles and buses: A Melbourne case study

This paper presents a case study that exemplifies how voluntary professional associations (VPAs) can contribute towards the achievement of societal goals like improving public health, reducing the rate of growth of congestion and reducing transport emissions by developing and implementing multi-stakeholder, industry-wide initiatives that aim to improve the extent of inter-modality for users of bicycles and buses in Victoria, over the long term, not just as an agent of bus operators, but of Government as well. This paper details the historical and current state of the carrying of bicycles on buses in some local and international jurisdictions and suggests two theories that underpin the initiative, being agency theory and the stakeholder perspective. It is expected the results will aid in the decision making associated with the greater proliferation of bicycle racks on buses. This paper extends the hypothesis of agency theory with two agents and presents a case study exemplar for other VPAs (or industry representative bodies) looking at developing industry-wide responses to societal issues.

An Empirical Study of the Impact of the Air Transportation Industry Energy Conservation and Emission Reduction Projects on the Local Economy in China.

Green development has been of particular interest to a range of industries worldwide, one of which being the air transportation industry (ATI). The energy conservation and emission reduction (ECER) projects of the ATI have a huge impact on the local economy. In this study, the input-output method was used to analyze the indirect economic impact of the implementation of the ECER projects of the ATI on the local economy of the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei (BTH) region. We examined the direct benefits, backward spread effects, forward spread effects, and consumption multiplier effects. The final results showed that the comprehensive economic income from 2011–2013 in the BTH region reached RMB 4.74 billion. The results revealed that the ECER projects commissioned by the ATI were worth investing from both the economic and social benefits perspectives. To increase the green development effects and promote the sustainable development of the ATI, the special funds provided by the Civil Aviation Administration of China should be invested intensively in basic green technology research and setting green regulating and governance rules.

An Improved Cuckoo Search for a Patient Transportation Problem with Consideration of Reducing Transport Emissions

Many government agencies and business organizations have realized that it is necessary to consider not only the economic cost but also the road transport emissions when they determine the transport policies and operations. In this study, a patient transportation problem with the aim of reducing transport emissions has been formulated by implementing CVRP model. In order to determine the routes of patient transportation with optimized emissions for targeted hospital, an improved Cuckoo Search (ICS) algorithm is proposed. In this study, a ‘split’ procedure has been implemented to simplify the individual’s representation. A new category of cuckoos has been introduced to improve the ICS’s search ability. Two heuristics have been applied to improve the quality of initial population. A local search mechanism has been embedded in the search procedure to improve the quality of solutions obtained at the end of each iteration. The computational results were encouraging and demonstrated the effectiveness of the proposed solution method.

Comparing the Effects of Vehicle Automation, Policy-Making and Changed User Preferences on the Uptake of Electric Cars and Emissions from Transport

Switching energy demand for transport from liquid fuels to electricity is the most promising way to significantly improve air quality and reduce transport emissions. Previous studies have shown this is possible, that by 2035 the economics of alternative powertrain and energy vectors will have converged. However, they do not address whether the transition is likely or plausible. Using the UK as a case study, we present a systems dynamics model based study informed by transition theory and explore the effects of technology progress, policy-making, user preferences and; for the first time, automated vehicles on this transition. We are not trying to predict the future but to highlight what is necessary in order for different scenarios to become more or less likely. Worryingly we show that current policies with the expected technology progress and expectations of vehicle buyers are insufficient to reach global targets. Faster technology progress, strong financial incentives or a change in vehicle buyer expectations are crucial but still insufficient. In contrast, the biggest switch to alternatively fuelled vehicles could be achieved by the introduction of automated vehicles. The implications will affect policy makers, automotive manufactures, technology developers and broader society.

Evaluation of Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) Management: Case Study of Lampang Municipality, Thailand

The issue of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from municipal solid waste (MSW) is important in the context of climate change. Reduction of GHGs from waste disposal systems is one of the management strategies forming part of Thailand’s National Economic and Social Development Plan. This project evaluated emissions from a municipal solid waste system covering transportation and disposal in Lampang Municipality, northern Thailand. GHG emissions from transportation were estimated by the Institute for Global Environmental Strategies (IGES) based on the travel distance of the vehicles, using a vehicle emission model and vehicle fuel consumption. GHG emissions during the disposal process were also estimated based mainly on the model of IGES. The results indicated that GHG emissions from sanitary landfill were highly dominated by methane (CH4) emissions (20,346 tons CO2eq a-1). In addition, carbon dioxide (CO2) was emitted (226 tons a-1) from the transportation process. This evaluation found that GHG emission estimates based on travel distance were lower than those based on fuel consumption (44 %). Furthermore, changing from diesel fuel to compressed natural gas will reduce transportation emissions by approximately 7 %.

Examining the Effect of Service Quality, Impact of usage and Attitude on the Intention to Use Rail Transit among Motorists in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Background/Aim: Public transits have been widely promulgated as an effective way to reduce transport emissions with trickledown co-benefits on population health. This study revealed the significanc...

Road transport vehicles in South Africa towards 2050: Factors influencing technology choice and implications for fuel supply

The South African transport sector is estimated to emit 60 MtCO2eq and require 800 PJ of energy, similar in scale to industrial energy demand and emissions. The sector is forecast to potentially eclipse industry in this regard if conventional vehicle choices and travel modes persist. This paper explores scenarios of transport technology choices and demand in a future of uncertain fuel and technology costs, and the consequences for energy supply and greenhouse gas emissions. It explores the extent of electric vehicle (EV) adoption and the implication of fuel migration from petroleum products. The preference for alternative fuels such as hydrogen, liquid biofuels and natural gas is also investigated. The evolution of road transport in South Africa towards 2050 is investigated utilising the South African TIMES model, a full energy sector least-cost optimisation model that relies on a rich technological database of the entire energy supply and demand system. Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles are shown to be a viable option in freight and public transport, potentially meeting 70% of travel demand by 2045. The private passenger and light commercial sectors emerge as the main market for electric vehicles, potentially accounting for 80% of new vehicle sales by 2045. Electricity as a transport fuel could account for 30% of fuel supply and reduce transport emissions to half of present day estimates. However, the key uncertainty driving EV adoption is future vehicle costs and crude oil prices, which could dampen EV uptake. Another main finding is that petroleum-dependent vehicles remain an important vehicle class, and that re-investment in existing crude oil refineries to conform to Euro5 standards is a likely requirement. There seems to be little indication, however, that additional refining capacity would be economically viable within the planning horizon.

Sustainable multi-echelon inventory control with shipment consolidation and volume dependent freight costs

This paper provides exact analysis of a model for sustainable control of a one-warehouse-N-retailer inventory system with time based shipment consolidation. The model is motivated by discussions with industry, and involves the possibility to reserve intermodal transportation capacity in combination with truck transports available on demand. Inventories are reviewed continuously while shipments from the warehouse are consolidated for groups of retailers and dispatched periodically. A key result is the derivation of the probability mass functions for the number of units on each shipment. This allows for realistic volume dependent freight cost structures and transportation emissions to be included in the model. We show how to jointly optimize the reorder levels, shipment intervals and capacity reservation quantities to minimize the total expected costs. Transportation emissions are taken into consideration by use of a side constraint or by introducing emissions costs. A numerical example illustrates how the model can be used for evaluating the cost impact of reducing transportation emissions. The analysis is applicable to both single- and multi-item systems.

A comparative analysis of vehicle-related greenhouse gas emissions between organic and conventional dairy production.

Agricultural industrialisation and globalisation have steadily increased the transportation of food across the world. In efforts to promote sustainability and self-sufficiency, organic milk producers in Sweden are required to produce a higher level of cattle feed on-farm in the hope that increased self-sufficiency will reduce reliance on external inputs and reduce transport-related greenhouse gas emissions. Using data collected from 20 conventional and 20 organic milk producers in Sweden this paper aims to assess the global warming impact of farmyard vehicles and the transportation of feed produced 'off-farm' in order to compare the impact of vehicle-related emissions from the different production methods. The findings show organic and conventional production methods have different vehicle-related emission outputs that vary according to a reliance on either road transportation or increased farmyard machinery use. Mechanical weeding is more fuel demanding than conventional agrichemical sprayers. However, artificial fertilising is one of the highest farmyard vehicle-related emitters. The general findings show organic milk production emits higher levels of farm vehicle-related emissions that fail to be offset by reduced emissions occurring from international transport emissions. This paper does not propose to cover a comprehensive supply chain carbon footprint for milk production or attempt to determine which method of production has the largest climatic impact. However, it does demonstrate that Sweden's legal requirements for organic producers to produce more feed on-farm to reduce transport emissions have brought emissions back within Sweden's greenhouse gas inventory and raises questions around the effectiveness of policies to reduce vehicle-related emissions. Further research is needed into the effectiveness of climate change mitigation on food production policies, in particular looking at various trade-offs that affects the entire food supply chain.

CO2 emission evaluation of yard tractors during loading at container terminals

CO2 emission generated by yard tractors at container terminals have been proven to be one of the main sources of pollution from maritime transportation. This paper aims to offer a method for evaluating the emissions from yard tractors during loading. First, an assignment model of export containers is built to capture the behavior of tractor arrivals at each block when the loading begins and the queuing theory is used to model the congestion happening in the yard. Second, emissions from yard tractors are evaluated based on the forecast arrivals. The emissions are categorized into two types: one from those tractors which are moving at normal speed and the other from those tractors sitting in traffic jam or at the stop-and-go state. Terminals with different calls and diversified storage utilization are simulated to show the performance of the proposed method and identify potential measures for traffic management aiming to reduce transport emissions. It is shown that the emissions from the yard tractors are closely related to the location of export containers and should be a main concern in operating a busy terminal.

Land-use drivers of transport emissions – revisited

The relationship between greenhouse gas emissions and land-use has received relatively little attention in the UK since planning policy guidance on transport (PPG13) was published in 1994. Land-use and transport planning practice both continue to discuss land-use change primarily in terms of the volume of new building. Land-use policy has focused on co-location of development for related uses, while transport policy relies on vehicle technologies for reducing transport emissions. However, turnover in occupation of the existing stock of housing (‘churn’) is about ten times the rate of new build (and churn of businesses and jobs may well exceed net change in housing), but these factors have received little attention. This paper concludes that a broader concept of land-use, which takes churn into account, could improve the capacity of both land-use and transport policies to reduce transport emissions. What is good for emissions is good for most other aspects of urban policy, so such a concept could also improve the economic and social well-being of cities. As with any concept, however, its impact will depend on the policies and actions that flow from it.

Modal Diversion Estimates

This research outlined and demonstrated an approach and methodology for assessing domestic truck traffic suitable for diversion to intermodal truck to rail shipping. The research was spurred by the following factors: transportation-related findings from the Wisconsin Economic Development Corporation's Wisconsin Economic Future Study: Statewide and Regional Analysis; a general interest in intermodal diversion from federal, state, and local transportation agencies (to alleviate roadway congestion, reduce road deterioration, and reduce transportation emissions and pollutants); and seemingly constant commentary from the state's private-sector freight stakeholders seeking increased inter-modal services. Estimates of diverted loads from trucking to truck-to-rail intermodal vary, depending on the associated cost savings, the commodity being shipped, and the distance between origin and destination. Model results suggest that nonmonetary incentives would be necessary for large volumes of freight to divert.

Fatigue analysis of a suspension for an in-wheel electric vehicle

Abstract Electrical vehicles (EVs) have a significant role in reducing transportation emissions and dependence on fossil fuels. This research has developed a high energy density in-wheel switch reluctance motor (SRM) drivetrain for a small car. The SRM drivetrains overcome the cost and availability issues associated with the permanent magnet motor (PMM), mostly used in EVs. However, the in-wheel SRM developed has an increased mass on suspensions when compared with an equivalent power output PMM drivetrain. Hence, the main aim of this paper is to assess the durability and life cycles for a small car suspension due to an increased mass. This fatigue study used a rain flow counting cycle method to generate damage and life matrix for the suspension. Using Plamgren-miner rule, the fatigue life cycles are predicted based on identified cumulative damages to the suspension.

Gross polluters for food shopping travel: An activity-based typology

To address the failure of sustainable transport policies to bring about significant change, researchers have proposed to ‘tame the few’, targeting the minority sectors of the population responsible for a disproportionate amount of emissions. At the same time, activity- and practice-based approaches are increasingly proposed as the way forward for transport and energy research. In this article, we develop an approach inspired by both developments, by focusing on the car- and carbon-intensive food shopping practices of the 20% of households with the longest car travel distance as recorded in the National Travel Survey of Great Britain (NTS 2002-2010) for this activity. We present a four-cluster typology of gross polluters, highlighting the crucial role of frequency and the existence of a small but growing group of low-income, older households with ‘Shopping intensive’ travel patterns. These results suggest that, while the households with the worst climate impact have a distinct socio-demographic profile, broader sections of the population are recruited into gross polluting patterns of food shopping travel. Also, while built environment policies remain key, significantly reducing transport emissions in this area requires a broader approach, taking into account the relationships between food shopping and eating practices.

Ecodriving in hybrid electric vehicles – Exploring challenges for user-energy interaction

Hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) can help to reduce transport emissions; however, user behaviour has a significant effect on the energy savings actually achieved in everyday usage. The present research aimed to advance understanding of HEV drivers' ecodriving strategies, and the challenges for optimal user-energy interaction. We conducted interviews with 39 HEV drivers who achieved above-average fuel efficiencies. Regression analyses showed that technical system knowledge and ecodriving motivation were both important predictors for ecodriving efficiency. Qualitative data analyses showed that drivers used a plethora of ecodriving strategies and had diverse conceptualisations of HEV energy efficiency regarding aspects such as the efficiency of actively utilizing electric energy or the efficiency of different acceleration strategies. Drivers also reported several false beliefs regarding HEV energy efficiency that could impair ecodriving efforts. Results indicate that ecodriving support systems should facilitate anticipatory driving and help users locate and maintain drivetrain states of maximum efficiency.