Red Radish Research Articles

Visible-Light Degradation of Dyes and Phenols over Mesoporous Titania Prepared by Using Anthocyanin from Red Radish as Template

Heterogeneous photocatalysis is able to operate effectively to eliminate organic compounds from wastewater in the presence of semiconductor photocatalyst and a light source. Although photosensitization of titania by organic dyes is one of the conventional ways for visible-light utilization of titania, previous studies have not yet addressed the use of natural food coloring agents as templates in the synthesis of mesostructured materials, let alone the simultaneous achievement of highly crystalline mesoscopic framework and visible-light photocatalytic activity. In this work, anthocyanin, a natural pigment from red radish was directly used as template in synthesis of highly crystalline mesoporous titania. The synthesized mesoporous titania samples were characterized by a combination of various physicochemical techniques, such as XRD, SEM, HRTEM, nitrogen adsorption/desorption, and diffuse reflectance UV-Vis. The prepared mesoporous titania photocatalyst exhibited significant activity under visible-light irradiation for the degradation of dyes and phenols due to its red shift of band-gap-absorption onset and visible-light response as a result of the incorporation of surface carbon species.

The Effect of Cooking on Total Polyphenolic Content and Antioxidant Activity of Selected Vegetables

The aim of this study to investigate the effect of different cooking methods (boiling, steaming, stir-frying, and microwaving) on the total polyphenolic content and total antioxidant activity of selected vegetables (beet, red cabbage, broccoli, white cabbage, black radish, kale, turnip, and red radish) from Turkey. A wide variation on total phenolic content was observed in raw vegetables, ranging from 44.94 ± 0.47 (beet, Beta vulgaris L. subsp. vulgaris) to 350.94 ± 5.18 (red radish, Raphanus sativus L.) μg gallic acid equivalent/mg of sample. Considering uncooked vegetables, the order of total antioxidant activity determined by β-carotene bleaching assay was beet > red cabbage > broccoli > white cabbage > black radish > kale > turnip > red radish. In DPPH• assay, kale had an exceptionally high antioxidant activity followed by red cabbage, broccoli, turnip, black radish, beet, white cabbage, and red radish.

Hydrophilic interaction chromatographic analysis of anthocyanins

Hydrophilic interaction chromatography (HILIC) provides an alternative separation mode for the analysis of phenolic compounds, in which aqueous-organic mobile phases with polar stationary phases are used. This paper reports the evaluation of HILIC for the analysis of the natural pigments anthocyanins, which are of importance because of their chromophoric properties and a range of health benefits associated with their consumption. Several HILIC stationary phases (silica, diol, amine, cyanopropyl and amide) and mobile phase combinations were evaluated, with the latter proving particularly important due to the distinctive chromatographic behaviour of anthocyanins. Diode array detection was used for selective detection of anthocyanins, while high resolution quadrupole-time-of-flight mass spectrometry (Q-TOF-MS) was used for compound identification. The potential of HILIC separation is demonstrated for a range of anthocyanins varying in glycosylation and acylation patterns found in blueberries, grape skins, black beans, red cabbage and red radish. HILIC is shown to be a complementary separation method to reversed phase liquid chromatography (RP-LC) due to the alternative retention mechanism.

Removal of off-flavours from radish (Raphanus sativus L.) anthocyanin-rich pigments using chitosan and its mechanism(s)

In this paper, we examined the role of chitosan in the removal of off-flavours from radish anthocyanin-rich pigments and studied the mechanisms of the process. Four radish glucosinolates (glucoraphenin, dehydroerucin, glucobrassicin, and glucoerucin) were identified by LC–MSn from root extracts and dehydroerucin was found to be the major glucosinolate in red radish roots. Application of chitosan with 76%, 83% or 89% deacetylation in radish extracts attributed to 26%, 35% or 43% adsorption rate for glucosinolates, and 28%, 26% or 22% for anthocyanins, respectively. HS-SPME/GC–MS analysis demonstrated that the concentration of volatile compounds decreased by 70%, resulting in the loss of odorous compounds. The changes in chitosan spectra before/after adsorption and after desorption at 1590 and 3360cm−1 and at broad bands from 2600 to 2000cm−1 suggest that the dominant adsorption mechanisms of glucosinolates on chitosan may be electrostatic attractions, including hydrogen bonds and charge neutralisation.

Thermal degradation kinetics of anthocyanins from Chinese red radish (Raphanus sativus L.) in various juice beverages

Thermal and storage stabilities of red radish anthocyanins (RRAs) in various juice beverages (apple, grape, peach, pear, pomegranate and lemon) were studied over temperature range 70–90 °C and 4–25 °C. RRAs degradation in all juice beverages followed first-order reaction kinetics. RRAs showed a much faster degradation rate during storage at room temperature (t 1/2 value ≤84.0 days) than did in refrigerated temperature (t 1/2 ≥value 130.9 days). The rate constant (k), E a and Q 10 values for RRAs in juice beverages varied from 1.33 to 0.33, 47.94 to 14.77 kJ mol−1 and 1.16 to 1.89 at 70–90 °C. During heating, RRAs in peach and pomegranate showed higher stability than others at these temperatures. There was a positive correlation (R 2 > 0.9128) between ascorbic acid content of juice beverages (8–36 mg/100 mg) and stability of RRAs at 70–90 °C. It was found that RRAs in apple and pear juice beverage were more stable than in other juice beverages.

Determination of pork spoilage by colorimetric gas sensor array based on natural pigments

A new colorimetric gas-sensor array based on four natural pigments, that were extracted from spinach (Spinacia oleracea), red radish (Raphanus sativus L.), winter jasmine (Jasminum nudiflorum), and black rice (Oryza sativa L. indica), was developed for pork freshness evaluation. A colour change profile for each sample was obtained by differentiating the images of the sensor array before and after exposure to the odour of sample. The total viable count (TVC) per gram of pork was obtained by classical microbiological plating methods, and the biogenic amines were measured by HPLC. Biogenic amine index (BAI) for the determination of meat freshness was developed from the sum of putrescine and cadaverine. The colour change profiles were analysed using principal component analysis and correlated with conventional methods (BAI, TVC). A partial least squares (PLS) prediction model was obtained with r=0.854 and 0.933 for BAI and TVC, respectively.

어린잎 적양무가루를 첨가한 우리밀 쿠키의 제조조건 최적화

본 연구는 어린잎 적양무가루를 첨가한 과자류 개발을 위해 회전중심합성계획법에 따라 어린잎 적양무가루, 버터, 설탕의 양을 독립변수로 하여 우리밀 쿠키를 제조하여, 품질 특성을 조사하고, 반응표면분석법을 이용하여 최적배합비를 구하였다. 이화학적 특성과 물성 중 L값(명도)는 quadratic 모델이 채택되었고, a값(적색도), b값(황색도), 퍼짐성, 경도는 linear 모델이 채택되었다. 관능적 특성인 색, 외관, 조직감, 향, 맛, 전체적 기호도는 quadratic 모델이 채택되었다. 관능특성 검사 결과 외관은 어린잎 적양무가루 첨가량의 증가에 따라 감소하고, 조직감은 버터 첨가량의 증가에 따라 증가하였다. 향, 맛, 전체적 기호도는 설탕 첨가량이 증가함에 따라 중심점(40 g) 부근까지는 급격히 증가하다가 그 이후부터는 약간씩 증가하였다. 그 외 다른 관능검사 항목에서는 어린잎 적양무가루, 버터, 설탕 첨가량에 의해 증가하다가 감소하는 경향을 볼 수 있었다. 관능적 기호도 중 맛은 버터 첨가량이 어린잎 적양무가루나 설탕 첨가량 보다 영향이 컸으며, 그 외, 색, 외관, 조직감, 향과 전체적 기호도는 어린잎 적양무가루의 영향이 버터나, 설탕에 대한 영향보다 컸다. 관능특성 검사 결과 중 유의성이 있었던 모든 항목의 최대값을 목표범위를 충족시키는 최적의 배합량은 어린잎 적양무가루 5.15 g, 버터 64.84 g, 설탕 47.18 g으로 산출되었다. The purpose of this study was optimization of the conditions for mixing different amounts of red radish (Raphanus sativus L.) sprout powder, butter, and sugar when baking domestic wheat cookies prepared using red radish sprout powder. Response surface methodology, with a central composite design comprising 5 levels and 3 variables, was used to identify the best possible combination of amounts of red radish sprout powder (<TEX>$X_1$</TEX>), butter (<TEX>$X_2$</TEX>), and sugar (<TEX>$X_3$</TEX>). The physical and mechanical properties of each of the 20 samples analyzed, including color L (p<0.001), color a (p<0.01), color b (p<0.001), spread ratio (p<0.001), and hardness (p<0.01), differed significantly. The results of sensory evaluations, including color (p<0.001), appearance (p<0.001), texture (p<0.001), flavor (p<0.01), taste (p<0.001), and overall quality (p<0.001) also differed significantly among the samples. The optimal compositional ratios were 5.15 g for the red radish sprout powder, 64.84 g for the butter, and 47.18 g for the sugar.

Antioxidant activity and antioxidant compounds in edible sprouts

The consumption of sprouts has been growing worldwide, they are a natural healthy food, and were considered as a valuable dietary supplement by richer health‐promoting phytochemicals. The broccoli, cabbage, tah tasai, rape, radish, red radish and Kohlrabi sprouts were freeze‐dried, and then analyzed for antioxidant activity and antioxidant compounds including ferric reducing activity power (FRAP), DPPH radical scavenging activity, total glucosinolate content, total phenolics and carotenoid. The FRAP of dried broccoli, cabbage, Tah Tasai, rape, radish, red radish and Kohlrabi sprouts were 93.44, 93.61, 94.81, 98.99, 100.88, 103.45 and 108.24 Fe2+ mM/g, respectively. Among seven edible sprouts, IC50 value of the DPPH radical scavenging activity in radish and rape sprouts were excellent, and were 3.08 and 3.18 mg/mL, respectively. The total phenolic content of sprouts species decreased in in the order of radish &gt;; kohlarbi &gt;; rape &gt;; red radish &gt;; tah tasai &gt;; cabbage &gt;; broccoli sprouts. Radish sprouts had higher total glucosinolate content than other sprouts, and the carotenoid of various sprouts showed beta‐carotene values between 12 and 15 mg/g. In this study it was indicate that the sprouts are a good source of phytochemical for our health‐promoting.

The prevalence of Leafy Vegetable-Borne Parasites in Al-Qassim Region , Saudi Arabia

One hundred–thirty (200 gm each) samples of five leafy vegetables (30 green onion, 20 red radish, 20 garden rocket, 30 lettuce and 30 parsley) were investigated for parasite contamination. Of all the examined samples, the most commonly contaminated vegetable was garden rocket (60%), followed by parsley (56.6%), green onion (33.3%), red radish (30%) and lettuce(20.6%). Giardia was the most prevalent among protozoan species and Taeniid eggs among the helminth parasites. Diarrhea causative parasites were also identified as Entamoeba cysts (10.7%), Cryptosporidium oocysts (13%) Balantidium coli (2.3%), Trichurid eggs (3.8%), and Enterobius (3%). Contamination of vegetables with Balantidium coli is recorded for the first time in Saudi Arabia. Beside the enteroparasites that cause diarrhea, the public health hazard of Toxocara, Taeniid eggs and hookworm larvae were referred to. Recommendations to the food and health environment authorities were given. Key words: Vegetables, Qassim, Balantidium coli, Toxocara, hookworm ,Taeniid eggs.

Pungency of Red Radish Storage Roots Is Unaffected by Spent Mushroom Substrate or Yard Waste Compost Treatments Used for Field Production

Field experiments were conducted at Bixby, OK, in 2007. Four compost treatments and an unamended control were compared for field production of eight (spring) or four (fall) red radish (Raphanus sativus L.) cultivars. Treatments were either spent mushroom substrate or yard waste compost spread over plots to an average depth of 2.5 or 5 cm and preplant-incorporated ≈5 to 7 cm deep. Radishes were direct-seeded into prepared plots and subsequently grown using standard cultural practices. Samples of median-sized marketable storage roots were shredded and juice was analyzed in the laboratory for pungency as measured by isothiocyanate (ITC) concentration (primarily 4-methylthio-3-butenyl isothiocyanate). In the spring, mean ITC concentrations ranged from 28.2 to 36.8 μmol per 100 g juice in storage roots from the four compost treatments, and differences were not significant (α = 0.05). There were not enough storage roots to analyze from the unamended control plots as a result of herbicide toxicity. Cultivars differed in mean concentration of ITCs, ranging from a high of 52.9 μmol per 100 g juice for ‘Cherry Belle’ to a low of 19.2 μmol per 100 g juice for ‘Crunchy Royale’. In the fall, mean ITC concentrations ranged from 10.5 to 24.6 μmol per 100 g juice in storage roots from the four compost treatments. Differences were not significant (α = 0.05), and there were no differences from the control value of 17.5 μmol per 100 g juice. The mean ITC concentration was 19.9 μmol per 100 g juice for the four cultivars tested in the fall, and the cultivars did not differ. Results indicate that the tested compost treatments did not affect pungency of red radish storage roots as measured by concentrations of ITCs.

Hepatoprotective activity of extracted anthocyanins fraction of red radish (&amp;lt;i&amp;gt;Raphanus sativus&amp;lt;/i&amp;gt; L) on albino rats

Objective: We investigated hepatoprotective and antioxidant activity of extracted anthocyanins fraction of red radish for the first time. Methods: Anthocyanins fraction of red radish (Raphanus sativus; AFRS) was selectively extracted by employment of polymeric ion-exchange resin. AFRS was evaluated for antioxidant and hepatoprotective activity against carbon tetrachloride (CCl4)-induced hepatotoxicity in rats. The animals were divided into seven groups of six animals each. Group I (control) received vehicle. Group II (drug control) received AFRS. Group III (toxicant) received CCl4. Group IV, V and VI received AFRS at doses of 50, 100 and 150 mg/kg po, respectively. Group VII (standard) received silymarin. Various biochemical parameters like alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), total bilirubin (TB) and direct bilirubin (DB) levels in serum as well as the glutathione (GSH) and malondialdehyde (MDA) levels in the liver were determined. Histopathological changes in the liver were also studied. The activity of AFRS was compared with the reference drug silymarin. Results: The yield of AFRS was found to be 0.084% (w/w). AFRS treated group did not show any significant change in the activity of serum ALT, AST, ALP, TB, DB, MDA and GSH level compared to control group. CCl4 significantly raised the serum level of all biochemical parameters (except GSH) in the toxicant group. The pre-treatment of AFRS for seven days had reversed the alteration of biochemical parameters towards normal, and the effects were comparable to standard drug (silymarin 100 mg/kg). The animals received pre-treatment of AFRS showed amelioration in necrotic zones and hepatocellular degeneration. Conclusion: This study demonstrates the antioxidant and hepatoprotective activity of anthocyanins fraction isolated from Raphanus sativus and thus scientifically supports the usage of it as food colorant and also justifies the use of the crude extracts of radish to treat various liver ailments in Indian folk medicine.

Methylation Formation to Improve Red Radish Anthocyanins Solubility in Cold Water

 Abstract—This paper introduced an approach by methylation formation to enhance the solubility of red radish anthocyanins in cold water. FTIR spectrums indicated the formation of methylated red radish anthocyanins. The methylation yeild was 81.4 % under optimized conditions. The solubility of methylated red radish anthocyanins could reach 10.7 mg/mL in cold water (4 °C ). They were water soluble, which facilitated them incorporation into aqueous food systems. And the evolution of CIELab has been studied. Therefore, the information collected from this study is valuable for improving the quality of red radish anthocyanins with good solubility in cold water.

The stability of natural red/pink food colours in ultrahigh‐temperature (UHT) products

The aim of this experiment was to select a pool of potential red/pink natural colour candidates and evaluate their stability during ultrahigh-temperature (UHT) processing and subsequent storage and to compare their behaviour against the artificial colour erythrosine. It was hypothesised that heat processing and post-treatment storage conditions would have a negative effect on the stability of the natural colourants. All colourants except fermented red rice showed significant colour loss post-UHT processing (α=0.05). Analysis of the colour parameters L*, a* and b* determined that lycopene was the least stable of the colourants and red radish the most stable under all conditions. Fermented red rice was observed to be heat-stable after exposure to UHT processing and also remained relatively stable during storage, as was black carrot. The variation across trials and the spoilage of some samples were attributed to the fluctuations in temperature (±5 °C) observed during processing. Heat processing and post-treatment storage conditions had a negative effect on the stability of the natural colourants.

Estimating pressure induced changes in vegetable tissue using in situ electrical conductivity measurement and instrumental analysis

Pressure-induced textural changes in selected vegetables (carrot, potato, and red radish) were investigated using in situ electrical conductivity measurement. Electrical conductivity of the vegetables was recorded in situ up to 10min under elevated pressures (200, 400, 600MPa at 25°C) using a custom-fabricated experimental setup. The tissue disintegration index (Z) was determined for raw, processed and freeze–thawed samples. The hardness and stiffness of the samples were evaluated using the instrumental texture analyzer. This information was related to the crunchiness index (CI). Pressure treatment increased electrical conductivity values of all the samples as a function of pressure and holding time. Beyond a certain threshold of pressure holding time, the electrical conductivity did not change further. In situ electrical conductivity measurement is a useful tool to document the extent of textural changes during high pressure processing.

Study of the mass spectrometric behaviors of anthocyanins in negative ionization mode and its applications for characterization of anthocyanins and non‐anthocyanin polyphenols

Traditionally, anthocyanin analysis in mass spectrometry is carried out in the positive ionization mode only. A study of the mass spectrometric behaviors of anthocyanins in the negative ionization mode revealed interesting characteristics that was not previously reported. It can be used to differentiate anthocyanins from other non-anthocyanin polyphenols. An ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography with high-resolution mass spectrometry (U-HPLC/HRMS) method was developed. The method used multiple-stage mass fragmentation in both the negative and positive ion modes. The whole cycle time of the new method is 1.8 s for two full scans and six data-dependent scans. The new strategy found, in the negative ionization mode, a series of characteristic ions, e.g. [M-2H](-), [M-2H + H(2)O](-), formic acid adducts, and doubly charged ions were observed for the MS analysis of anthocyanins. The characteristic ions can be used for identification and differentiation of anthocyanins and non-anthocyanin phenolic compounds. Comprehensive studies were performed on the differentiation of anthocyanins and non-anthocyanin polyphenols in blueberry (Vaccinium cyanococcus), Hongcaitai (Brassica compestris L. var. purpurea Bailey), and red radish (Raphanus sativus var. longipinnatus 'Shinrimei'). The data generated from a single LC run enables rapid and reliable differentiation and identification of anthocyanins and non-anthocyanins in botanicals and foods. Published 2012. This article is a US Government work and is in the public domain in the USA.

Compost Treatments Interact with Other Factors To Affect Red Radish Production

Spent mushroom substrate and yard waste compost each were applied to the soil surface at two depths (equivalent to 2.5 or 5 cm) and then incorporated in order to study effects on spring and fall production of red radishes (Raphanus sativus L.). Other variables examined were radish cultivars and, in one fall experiment, the presence or absence of the herbicide trifluralin. Spent mushroom substrate gave seasonally-variable results, including a distinct negative effect on yield when applied at 204 Mg.ha−1 (a layer 5 cm deep) for fall production. Yard waste compost improved yield as compared to unamended soil when trifluralin was used; however, no benefit was demonstrated in the absence of the herbicide. Hybrid cultivars produced higher yields overall than open-pollinated cultivars, but there was some overlap between specific cultivars, and compost x cultivar interactions were evident in two of three experiments. Spent mushroom substrate is not recommended as a soil amendment for radish production when stand establishment occurs under hot, dry conditions. Further research is needed to determine the potential usefulness of yard waste compost as a soil amendment for field production of radish in the absence of a phytotoxic herbicide. Chemical name used: 2,6-dinitro-N,N-dipropyl-4-(trifluoromethyl)benzenamine (trifluralin).

Anthocyanin and glucosinolate occurrences in the roots of Chinese red radish (Raphanus sativus L.), and their stability to heat and pH

Abstract Roots of three unique Chinese radish cultivars were evaluated as potential sources for anthocyanin-type colourants or value-added products. These cultivars showed high variation in anthocyanins (63.77–160.74 mg/100 g FW). Seventeen pigments were tentatively identified by mass spectroscopy as pelargonidin-3-sophoroside-5-glucoside derivatives with multiple acylation of hydroxycinnamic acids. A bright colour (CIELab) of radish anthocyanins has been shown at a wide pH range, comparably stable at pH 3.6, respectively. In a radish juice model (pH 5.8/2.5), thermal degradation of anthocyanins or glucosinolates was associated closely with media pH values. In conclusion, cultivar selection, and thermal and pH conditions during processing or storage should be taken into account for quality, stability, and health benefits of radish derived natural colourants or nutraceutical products.

Modulation of endogenous peroxidase by exogenous peroxidase in chinese red radish seedling

To investigate the peroxidase function and its signal pathway, activity and isozyme pattern of peroxidase and transcription level of the peroxidase gene rsprx1 and rsprx2 in Chinese red radish seedling (Raphanus sativus L.) were investigated after administration of the exogenous peroxidase (extract of radish). The activity and isozyme pattern of peroxidases were increased, among cotyledon, hypocotyl and root, the most significant increase of peroxidases activity was observed in hypocotyls, the activity of phenylalanine ammonialyase was also increased, but the pelargonidin content was decreased. Although the exogenous application of horseradish peroxidase and the extract of radish could both affect the activity of endogenous enzyme and metabolites of Chinese red radish seedlings, the latter was more effective than the former. Nifedipine, as L-calcium channel blocker, affected the activity of peroxidase and pelargonidin content in Chinese red radish seedling. Exogenously added nifedipine with the extract caused reversal of the effects. It is concluded that calcium was involved in the signal pathway of the extract of radish in Chinese red radish seedling.

STABILITY OF BLACK CARROT ANTHOCYANINS IN THE TURKISH DELIGHT (LOKUM) DURING STORAGE

ABSTRACT In this research, traditional Turkish delight (lokum) was colored with black carrot juice concentrate, and the variations in anthocyanin content, during storage at different temperatures (12, 20 and 30C) for 5‐month periods, were observed by spectrophotometer and high‐performance liquid chromatography. Analysis of kinetic data suggested a first‐order reaction for the degradation of black carrot anthocyanins in Turkish delight. Degradation rates of anthocyanins of black carrot increased with increasing temperature. It was determined that the degradation rate of black carrot anthocyanins during the storage period at 12C increased faster than that of the other temperatures (20 and 30C). The k values for 12, 20 and 30C were found to be 6.91 × 10−3, 4.21 × 10−3and 9.21 × 10−3/day, respectively. Effects of pH on the thermal stability of black carrot anthocyanins were also determined. Results showed that the stability of anthocyanins decreased as the pH value increased. Increase in pH values correlated well with the decrease in anthocyanin content of the samples during storage. In all of the samples, redness (a*) decreased during the storage at all temperatures; however, lightness (L*) increased.PRACTICAL APPLICATIONSMost of commercial anthocyanins used as a colorant in foods are obtained from fruits or vegetables such as: red grape, elderberry, blackcurrant, blackberry, raspberry, black chokeberry, red cabbage, black carrot, purple corn, red radish and purple sweet potato.Turkish delight (lokum), one of the most popular traditional food products in Turkey, is a famous Turkish desert known all over the world. Lokum is produced by using sugar, water, starch, citric acid, aromatic compounds, dried fruits and natural colorant. The color of foods, which is one of the initial properties noticed in foods, is one of the most important quality parameters affecting consumers. Because of consumer anxiety over the safety of synthetic food colorants, the demand for natural food colorants has increased. Particularly, there is an increasing request for natural red food colorants as alternatives to the most commonly used synthetic red colorant. Therefore, the availability and the suitability of black carrot juice concentrate as a natural colorant instead of synthetic colorants which are considered to have some negative properties for human health was investigated by this work.

Anthocyanin Accumulation and Expression of Anthocyanin Biosynthetic Genes in Radish (Raphanus sativus)

Radish [Raphanus sativus (Rs)] is an important dietary vegetable in Asian countries, especially China, Japan, and Korea. To elucidate the molecular mechanisms of anthocyanin accumulation in radish, the gene expression of enzymes directly involved in anthocyanin biosynthesis was analyzed. These genes include phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL), cinnamate 4-hydroxylase (C4H), 4-coumarate-CoA ligase (4CL), chalcone synthase (CHS), chalcone isomerase (CHI), flavanone 3-hydroxylase (F3H), dihydroflavonol reductase (DFR), and anthocyanidin synthase (ANS). RsDFR and RsANS were found to accumulate in the flesh or skin of two radish cultivars (Man Tang Hong and Hong Feng No.1). Radish skin contained higher CHS, CHI, and F3H transcript levels than radish flesh in all three cultivars. In the red radish, 16 anthocyanins were separated and identified by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and elctrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry (ESI-MS/MS). Some of them were acylated with coumaroyl, malonoyl, feruoyl, and caffeoyl moieties. Furthermore (-)-epicatechin and ferulic acid were also identified in the three cultivars.