Recycling Strategies Research Articles

Using Yield and Entropy-Based Characteristics for Circular Economy

Environmental impacts of the extant linear carbon economy and aspects of conservation of resources demand a transformation to a circular carbon economy (CCE). In view of this transformation, carbon-containing plastic products should be reused and recycled to prevent or minimize the release of their carbon content into the environment. Different plastic waste feedstock recycling strategies are applicable, with different degrees of feedstock destruction, depending on the degree of degradation and contamination of the intended recycle fractions. The evaluation of the effectiveness of recycling processes by substance and carbon-based yield and entropic characteristics could be a part of the overall evaluation strategy for recycling processes. Possible principles and base equations of such substance and carbon-based yield and entropic characteristics, extracted from the literature and adapted, are delineated in this article. Substance-based characteristics could be applied for physical recycling processes in which the aspired recovery substances remain preserved and are physically separated. A resort to carbon-based characteristics could be practiced for recycling and combustion processes, in which the feedstock is chemically destroyed, and new substances are possibly synthesized. Stylized process examples depict the way of a joint usage of yield and entropic characteristics.

재활용 가능성을 고려한 제품 설계 및 재활용 운영 전략

This study investigates the interaction between product recyclability, corporate profits, and consumer behavior. Based on previous studies on environmental economics and product design, we derive an optimal recycling strategy by analyzing the impact of product design's recycling rate on operations, environment, and profit. Through a model that reflects consumer preference for environmentally friendly products, we investigate the impact of a manufacturing firm’s choice of recycling level, product sales price, and collection strategy for used products on the firm's profit as well as recycling performance. Through the analysis, we reveal that an increase in the recyclability of a product leads to an increase in product price, collection price, consumer demand, and collection quantity. This study contributes to the extant literature in that it enhances understanding of the recycling process and derives its optimal structure and strategy. Additionally, the results of this study provide useful insights for firms to fulfill their environmental responsibilities through product recycling and build a sustainable business capability. This study is significant in that it proposes a method of establishing a product pricing policy by considering consumers' sensitivity to product price and collection price, and establishing an effective and efficient recycling strategy by considering recycling and production costs.

A Master’s Course Can Emphasize Circular Economy in Municipal Solid Waste Management: Evidence from the University of Pisa

Municipal solid waste (MSW) represents a significant global threat, which has to be managed by a model of production and consumption involving the sharing, leasing, reusing, repairing, refurbishing, and recycling of existing materials and products for as long as possible, otherwise known as a circular economy (CE). However, there is not a universal rule for waste recycling strategies, and it has been demonstrated that active public participation is crucial in the satisfactory management of waste. In this context, citizen participation and education are two interrelated approaches, which can help to engage and inform people regarding waste and its wider impact. The present study describes the development of an interdisciplinary hackathon (hackathons are events whereby individuals from different backgrounds are brought together to work on the solutions to different problems), targeted to students of a postgraduate Master’s course on Sustainable Development and Climate Change in order to develop and understand the MSW problems and priorities currently being targeted, with the aim to propose new potential solutions for MSW reduction, reuse, and recycling. Following an empirical approach, four working groups were established and assigned the following specific tasks: (i) communication/citizen education on MSW; (ii) the reduction of MSW production; (iii) innovative solutions to recover and enhance secondary raw materials deriving from MSW processing; and (iv) the eco-design of the cities of the future concerning CE principles applied to MSW recycling. Overall, the following main findings were derived from the hackathon event: (i) an essential objective of the CE strategy is to drive Europe’s internal market towards the production and consumption of more sustainable products, thus reducing environmental and social pressures, while still retaining value; (ii) the most effective ways of tackling environmental problems are to ‘change the way we consume’, as well as to ‘change the way we produce and trade’, with the responsibility shared between businesses, governments, and the EU, as well as the citizens themselves. In this scenario, research and innovation play a key role in driving the necessary systemic changes to reach climate neutrality and ensure an inclusive ecological and economic transition. Overall, the present study confirms how the hackathon represents an effective tool to engage citizens in participation and education.

Study of Zinc Diffusion Based on S, N-Codoped Honeycomb Carbon Cathodes for High-Performance Zinc-Ion Capacitors.

Capacitors with zinc ions, with excellent stabilities, low cost, and high energy density, are expected to be promising energy storage devices. However, the development of zinc-ion capacitors is quietly restricted by low specific capacity and cycling stability. Herein, to overcome these limitations, honeycomb-structured S, N-codoped carbon (SNPC) is constructed by one-pot calcination of waste corn bracts and thiourea. The honeycomb structure of SNPC is demonstrated to provide abundant active sites that can enhance the extron/ion transport, conductivity for high power export, and ion adsorption capacity in energy storage applications, leading to a higher electrochemical performance achieved. The electrolytes of zinc salt have also been studied. It reveals that the SNPC electrode presents the best electrochemical performance in a 2 M ZnSO4 and 0.5 M ZnCl2 electrolyte mixture because in the electrolyte mixture, Cl- can replace the existing bound water in the solvation structure to form an anion-type water-free solvation structure ZnCl42-. The SNPC-800 electrode with a highly improved surface area (∼909.0 m2 g-1) is proved to be more suitable as the electrode than other materials. Aqueous zinc-ion capacitors (ZICs) have been assembled by the honeycomb-structured SNPC-800 as the cathode, which can achieve a relatively wide working voltage range of 0.1-1.8 V. The SNPC-800 ZICs exhibit a superior specific capacity of 179.1 mA h g-1 at 0.1 A g-1. The energy density of SNPC-800 ZICs reaches an impressive value of 89.6 Wh kg-1 at 53.8 W kg-1, and it sustains 28.3 Wh kg-1 at 1997.6 W kg-1. In addition, there is 99.8% capacity retention in the SNPC-800 ZICs over 5000 cycles. The absorption energy in SPNC is much higher than that in undoped CPC, as confirmed by density functional theory, which reveals that introducing of heteroatoms (S, N) has a comparatively active advantage at increasing the Zn-ion storage capacity. This work proposes a practical strategy for the effective recycling of waste biomass materials into honeycomb carbon electrode materials. Moreover, the honeycomb carbon-based ZICs with excellent electrochemical performance and long-term cycling stability possess great potential to be a superior cathode in practical applications.

Mechanistic insights into the alternative ribosome recycling by HflXr.

During stress conditions such as heat shock and antibiotic exposure, ribosomes stall on messenger RNAs, leading to inhibition of protein synthesis. To remobilize ribosomes, bacteria use rescue factors such as HflXr, a homolog of the conserved housekeeping GTPase HflX that catalyzes the dissociation of translationally inactive ribosomes into individual subunits. Here we use time-resolved cryo-electron microscopy to elucidate the mechanism of ribosome recycling by Listeria monocytogenes HflXr. Within the 70S ribosome, HflXr displaces helix H69 of the 50S subunit and induces long-range movements of the platform domain of the 30S subunit, disrupting inter-subunit bridges B2b, B2c, B4, B7a and B7b. Our findings unveil a unique ribosome recycling strategy by HflXr which is distinct from that mediated by RRF and EF-G. The resemblance between HflXr and housekeeping HflX suggests that the alternative ribosome recycling mechanism reported here is universal in the prokaryotic kingdom.

Efficient direct repairing of lithium- and manganese-rich cathodes by concentrated solar radiation

Lithium- and manganese-rich layered oxide cathode materials have attracted extensive interest because of their high energy density. However, the rapid capacity fading and serve voltage decay over cycling make the waste management and recycling of key components indispensable. Herein, we report a facile concentrated solar radiation strategy for the direct recycling of Lithium- and manganese-rich cathodes, which enables the recovery of capacity and effectively improves its electrochemical stability. The phase change from layered to spinel on the particle surface and metastable state structure of cycled material provides the precondition for photocatalytic reaction and thermal reconstruction during concentrated solar radiation processing. The inducement of partial inverse spinel phase is identified after concentrated solar radiation treatment, which strongly enhances the redox activity of transition metal cations and oxygen anion, and reversibility of lattice structure. This study sheds new light on the reparation of spent cathode materials and designing high-performance compositions to mitigate structural degradation.

New combined absorption/1H NMR method for qualitative and quantitative analysis of PET degradation products

Poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) is a very valuable and beneficial material for industrial purposes, with various different applications. Due to the high annual production volume of over 50 million tons worldwide and the indiscriminate disposal by consumers, the polymers accumulate in the environment, causing negative effects on various ecosystems. Biodegradation via suitable enzymes represents a promising approach to combat the plastic waste issue so validated methods are required to measure the efficiency and efficacy of these enzymes. PETase and MHETase from Ideonella sakaiensis are suitable enzymes needed in combination to completely degrade PET into its environmentally friendly monomers. In this project, we compare and combine a previously described bulk absorbance measurement method with a newly established 1H NMR analysis method of the PET degradation products mono(2-hydroxyethyl) terephthalic acid, bis(2-hydroxyethyl) terephthalic acid and terephthalic acid. Both were optimized regarding different solvents, pH values and drying processes. The accuracy of the measurements can be confirmed with sensitivity limits of 2.5–5 µM for the absorption method and 5–10 µM for the 1H NMR analysis. The combination of the described methods therefore allows a quantitative analysis by using bulk absorption coupled with a qualitative analysis through 1H NMR. The methods established in our work can potentially contribute to the development of suitable recycling strategies of PET using recombinant enzymes.

High-Quality Cellulosic Fibers Engineered from Cotton-Elastane Textile Waste.

Even small amounts of elastane in cotton-elastane blended textiles can prevent fiber-to-fiber recycling strategies in textile recycling. Herein, the selective separation of elastane from cotton blends was addressed by the aminolytic degradation of the synthetic component. Polar aprotic solvents were tested as elastane solvents, but side reactions impeded aminolysis with some of them. Aminolysis of elastane succeeded under mild conditions using dimethyl sulfoxide in combination with diethylenetriamine and 1,5-diazabicyclo[4.3.0]non-5-ene as a cleaving agent and catalyst, respectively. The analysis of the nitrogen content in the recovered cellulose fraction demonstrated that 2 h of reaction at 80 °C reduced the elastane content to values lower than 0.08%. The characterization of the recovered cellulose showed that the applied conditions did not affect the macromolecular properties of cellulose and maintained a cellulose I crystal structure. Degraded elastane products were recovered through precipitation with water. Finally, the cellulosic component was turned into new fibers by dry-jet wet spinning with excellent tensile properties.

Efficient and sustainable strategy for recycling of carbon fiber-reinforced thermoset composite waste at ambient pressure

The recycling of advanced carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer composite waste is a significantly challenging task owing to its thermosetting characteristics. In this study, an innovative recycling strategy was developed for carbon fiber-reinforced bismaleimide (CF/BMI) composite waste under mild conditions. The composite waste underwent complete decomposition in diethylenetriamine solvent under the optimum treatment conditions (4 h at 180 °C and ambient pressure). In the degradation process, the C–N–C bonds of the imide rings in the BMI polymer were broken. The BMI polymer was broken down into oligomers containing reactive amide and amine groups, which became completely soluble. The recycled CFs exhibited a clean surface and tensile properties nearly the same as those of virgin CFs. Subsequently, the degraded BMI oligomers (DBOs) and residual solvent were easily separated by distillation under reduced pressure and mild temperatures (110–120 °C). The resulting DBOs could be combined with epoxy resins to fabricate new materials, which achieved optimal mechanical and thermomechanical properties when prepared with 10 wt% DBOs. The recovered high-purity solvent could be reused for the next round of composite recycling. This study presents a simple paradigm for the highly efficient, sustainable, and environmentally friendly recycling of industrial CF/BMI composite waste.

Apply advanced management techniques in demolition, renovation and construction projects to improve building material recycling efficiency and reduce carbon emissions

This research delves into the complicated issues associated with demolition, renovation, and construction of buildings to find viable, sustainable practices that will relieve some strain on nature. Identifying major components like governmental policies, cooperative work of stakeholders, assimilation of technology, and the possible transformative capacity brought by Building Information Modeling (BIM), this research attempts to unveil how a more ecologically mindful construction industry can be achieved. The methodology used in this research has a multi-dimensional approach that is aimed at thoroughly understanding and clearing the challenges within the construction industry. The strengths like government support, stakeholder involvement, technological innovations, and adoption of BIM assist in building a strong base for sustainability. The research identified opportunities for technological advancements, special solutions, and government incentives. Technological advancement is a constantly changing environment, which gives the building sector an opportunity to adapt and enhance its recycling strategies. Customized solutions highlight the fact that such "place-based" strategies are needed because different urban, suburban, and rural landscapes present distinct challenges. Most property owners would be convinced to swap their regular buildings with sustainable building techniques through incentives from the government, such as tax benefits and subsidies. Furthermore, regulatory compliance issues and resistance to change cement the fact that societies need not only solid guidelines but also constant efforts to redefine standards in every industry. Effective negotiation between stakeholders becomes essential. Therefore, it can be stated that the findings give weight as catalysts of change in terms of action within the construction industry.

Subsidizing extensive cattle production in the European Union has major implications for global agricultural trade and climate change

Pastureland maintenance is seen as a land-based measure to reduce dependency on feed concentrates and mitigate greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from livestock production in the EU, while providing other ecosystems services. This paper assesses potential market-mediated impacts, including global Land Use Change (LUC) and GHG emissions, from increased subsidies to pasture-based livestock production in the EU. A tax recycling strategy (TRS) is simulated against a baseline up to 2030 under the shared socioeconomic pathway 2 (SSP2). This implies a budget-neutral increase in the level of pasture subsidies in individual Member States, as land subsidies for other cropping activities decrease. We employ the computable general equilibrium (CGE) model GTAP in its recursive-dynamic version, GTAP-RDEM, extended with the Multi-Regional Input-Output (MRIO) database FABIO to disaggregate agri-food sectors from 21 to 31. This approach allows considering price- and income-dependent feedbacks when assessing long-run changes in the global economy, improving the sectoral resolution relative to GTAP v10.The policy increases pastureland areas and cattle production in almost all EU Member States, whereas cropland and crop production decrease, causing significant changes across EU agri-food markets. Crop prices increase, leading to the reduced output of intensive animal production sectors, mainly pig and poultry. Cropland areas decrease and most EU countries increase imports of grain, oilseeds, and cakes, essentially soybean cake from Brazil and North America. While GHG emissions decrease in those EU countries where pasturelands expand mainly at the cost of croplands, GHG emissions increase in those countries where pastureland expansion comes with forest loss. As a result, net GHG emissions increase in the EU-27 in 2030 (+2.49 Mt CO2-eq). Emissions from LUC in major non-EU grain- and oilseed-exporting countries increase, e.g., by 102.52 Mt CO2-eq in Brazil and by 129.17 Mt CO2-eq in North America. The simulated policy shows that promoting extensive livestock per se does not meet the objectives of the Common Agricultural Policy and the EU Green Deal. The TRS should be complemented with policies to foster crop diversification and promote the use of domestic feed sources (e.g., legumes) to effectively ensure feed self-sufficiency and that extensive cattle production in the EU does not lead to deforestation in carbon-rich countries.

Direct Recycling of β‐Li3PS4‐Based All‐Solid‐State Li‐Ion Batteries: Interactions of Electrode Materials and Electrolyte in a Dissolution‐Based Separation Process

All‐solid‐state batteries (ASSB) are currently developed at high pace and show a strong potential for market introduction within the next years. Though their performance has improved considerably over the last years, investigation of their sustainability and the development of suitable recycling strategies have received less attention. However, their potential for efficient circular processes must be accessed comprehensively. In this article, the separation of the solid electrolyte β‐Li3PS4 from different lithium transition metal oxide electrode materials (LiCoO2, LiMn2O4, LiNi0.8Mn0.1Co0.1O2, LiFePO4, LiNi0.8Co0.15Al0.05O2, and Li4Ti5O12) are investigated via an approach based on the dissolution and subsequent precipitation of the thiophosphate using N‐methylformamide as solvent. A combination of X‐ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, energy‐dispersive X‐ray spectroscopy, inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry, iodometric titration, and X‐ray photoelectron spectroscopy as well as electrochemical impedance spectroscopy and electrochemical characterization is used to characterize the electrolyte and electrode materials before and after separation. Herein, it is found that the presence of electrode materials in the dissolution process can lead to significant chemical reactions. These interactions can (but most not) lead to strong alteration of the electrochemical characteristics of the individual compounds. Thus, it is shown that an efficient recovery of materials likely depends on the precise material combination within an ASSB.

A Characterization Approach for End-of-Life Textile Recovery Based on Short-Wave Infrared Spectroscopy

Reusing and recycling End-Of-Life (EoL) textiles is a successful approach to develop sustainable and circular strategies in the apparel industry. Textile reuse and recycling can help to reduce the environmental impact of the fashion and textile industry by preserving natural resources and reducing waste. Textile fibers recognition and sorting, according to material composition, are of primary importance for the implementation of efficient and sustainable recycling strategies. In this work, Short-Wave InfraRed (SWIR: 1000–2500 nm) spectroscopy was applied to extract information regarding the fabric composition of different EoL textiles in order to set up a hierarchical classification procedure able to recognize different type of textile. In more detail, Partial Least Squares-Discriminant Analysis (PLS-DA) pattern recognition technique was used and classifications were performed in two steps: (1) recognition of the fiber origin [i.e. plant-derived, animal-derived, artificial textiles such as synthetic and/or Man-Made Cellulosic Fibers (MMCFs)] and, (2) discrimination of fabrics according to the material classes (i.e. silk, cotton, wool, viscose, linen, jute, polyester and blends). The proposed chemometric technique successfully classified textiles based on their spectral properties. The acquired results are highly promising and provide important insight into the EoL textile recycling business. These analytical techniques have the potential to be utilized to successfully automate the recycling process, either in addition to or as a replacement for manual processes, hence improving sorting procedures.Graphical

Battery Waste Management in Europe: Black Mass Hazardousness and Recycling Strategies in the Light of an Evolving Competitive Regulation

The increasing significance of batteries in the 21st century and the challenges posed by the anticipated surge in end-of-life batteries, particularly within the European context, are examined in this study. Forecasts predict a notable escalation in battery waste, necessitating a focus on the recycling of black mass (BM)—a complex and hazardous byproduct of the battery recycling process. Employing systematic analysis, this research investigates the hazardous nature of BM derived from various battery types. The study underscores the urgent need for definitive legislative classification of BM’s hazardous properties (HPs), in accordance with European regulations. This comprehensive examination of BM’s HPs contributes significantly to the understanding of BM recycling complexities, proving essential for industry stakeholders and guiding future developments in this field. Additionally, the study explores innovative technologies and strategies that could improve recycling efficiency and reduce associated risks. A pivotal finding of this investigation is the inherently hazardous nature of BM, leading to the recommendation that BM should be classified at a minimum under the “HP3—Flammable” category. This discovery underscores the critical need for stringent management protocols and robust regulatory frameworks to address the burgeoning challenge of battery waste in Europe.

Degradation Product-Promoted Depolymerization Strategy for Chemical Recycling of Poly(bisphenol A carbonate)

The accumulation of waste plastics has a severe impact on the environment, and therefore, the development of efficient chemical recycling methods has become an extremely important task. In this regard, a new strategy of degradation product-promoted depolymerization process was proposed. Using N,N′-dimethyl-ethylenediamine (DMEDA) as a depolymerization reagent, an efficient chemical recycling of poly(bisphenol A carbonate) (BPA-PC or PC) material was achieved under mild conditions. The degradation product 1,3-dimethyl-2-imidazolidinone (DMI) was proven to be a critical factor in facilitating the depolymerization process. This strategy does not require catalysts or auxiliary solvents, making it a truly green process. This method improves the recycling efficiency of PC and promotes the development of plastic reutilization.

Coupling Ferricyanide/Ferrocyanide Redox Mediated Recycling Spent LiFePO4 with Hydrogen Production

AbstractReplacing the oxygen evolution reaction with thermodynamically more favorable alternative oxidation reactions offers a promising alternative to reduce the energy consumption of hydrogen production. However, questions remain regarding the economic viability of alternative oxidation reactions for industrial‐scale hydrogen production. Here, we propose an innovative cost‐effective, environment‐friendly and energy‐efficient strategy for simultaneous recycling of spent LiFePO4 (LFP) batteries and hydrogen production by coupling the spent LFP‐assisted ferricyanide/ferrocyanide ([Fe(CN)6]4−/[Fe(CN)6]3−) redox reaction. The onset potential for the electrooxidation of [Fe(CN)6]4− to [Fe(CN)6]3− is low at 0.87 V. Operando Raman and UV/Visible spectroscopy confirm that the presence of LFP in the electrolyte allows for the rapid reduction of [Fe(CN)6]3− to [Fe(CN)6]4−, thereby completing the [Fe(CN)6]4−/[Fe(CN)6]3− redox cycle as well as facilitating the conversion of spent LiFePO4 into LiOH ⋅ H2O and FePO4. The electrolyzer consumes 3.6 kWh of electricity per cubic meter of H2 produced at 300 mA cm−2, which is 43 % less than conventional water electrolysis. Additionally, this recycling pathway for spent LFP batteries not only minimizes chemical consumption and prevents secondary pollution but also presents significant economic benefits.

Coupling Ferricyanide/Ferrocyanide Redox Mediated Recycling Spent LiFePO4 with Hydrogen Production.

Replacing the oxygen evolution reaction with thermodynamically more favorable alternative oxidation reactions offers a promising alternative to reduce the energy consumption of hydrogen production. However, questions remain regarding the economic viability of alternative oxidation reactions for industrial-scale hydrogen production. Here, we propose an innovative cost-effective, environment-friendly and energy-efficient strategy for simultaneous recycling of spent LiFePO4 (LFP) batteries and hydrogen production by coupling the spent LFP-assisted ferricyanide/ferrocyanide ([Fe(CN)6 ]4- /[Fe(CN)6 ]3- ) redox reaction. The onset potential for the electrooxidation of [Fe(CN)6 ]4- to [Fe(CN)6 ]3- is low at 0.87 V. Operando Raman and UV/Visible spectroscopy confirm that the presence of LFP in the electrolyte allows for the rapid reduction of [Fe(CN)6 ]3- to [Fe(CN)6 ]4- , thereby completing the [Fe(CN)6 ]4- /[Fe(CN)6 ]3- redox cycle as well as facilitating the conversion of spent LiFePO4 into LiOH ⋅ H2 O and FePO4 . The electrolyzer consumes 3.6 kWh of electricity per cubic meter of H2 produced at 300 mA cm-2 , which is 43 % less than conventional water electrolysis. Additionally, this recycling pathway for spent LFP batteries not only minimizes chemical consumption and prevents secondary pollution but also presents significant economic benefits.

Spectral Characterization of Battery Components from Li-Ion Battery Recycling Processes

Considering the increasing demand for Li-ion batteries, there is a need for sophisticated recycling strategies with both high recovery rates and low costs. Applying optical sensors for automating component detection is a very promising approach because of the non-contact, real-time process monitoring and the potential for complete digitization of mechanical sorting processes. In this work, mm-scale particles from shredded end-of-life Li-ion batteries are investigated by five different reflectance sensors, and a range from the visible to long-wave infrared is covered to determine the ideal detection window for major component identification as relevant input signals to sorting technologies. Based on the characterization, a spectral library including Al, Cu, separator foil, inlay foil, and plastic splinters was created, and the visible to near-infrared range (400–1000 nm) was identified as the most suitable spectral range to reliably discriminate between Al, Cu, and other battery components in the recycling material stream of interest. The evaluation of the different sensor types outlines that only imaging sensors meet the requirements of recycling stream monitoring and can deliver sufficient signal quality for subsequent mechanical sorting controls. Requirements for the setup parameters were discussed leading to the setup recommendation of a fast snapshot camera with a sufficiently high spectral resolution and signal-to-noise ratio.

A high-efficiency and low-carbon strategy for selective lithium recovery from spent lithium-ion batteries: Combining mechanochemical activation with biomass reduction roasting

Biomass reduction roasting has attracted considerable attention as an emerging strategy for selectively recovering lithium from spent lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). However, the utilization of excessive roasting conditions in current practices results in significant energy consumption and C emissions, thereby hindering further development. Herein, we propose a novel recycling strategy that combines mechanochemical activation (MCA) with biomass reduction roasting. The optimized roasting conditions with MCA pretreatment achieve a 100 °C reduction in roasting temperature, a halving of biomass ratio and roasting time, compared to the case without activation. By analyzing the changes in physicochemical properties of mixed samples (cathode materials and biomass) under different activation conditions and their impacts, the action mechanism of MCA on biomass reduction roasting is revealed. The introduction of MCA pretreatment achieves milder roasting conditions by promoting homogeneous mixing and disrupting NCM crystal structures through the “pre-oxygen elements removal” process. Furthermore, mechanical treatment was applied to enhance the carbonated water leaching process. The results of sustainability analysis and economic evaluation demonstrate that the proposed recycling strategy not only reduces CO2 emissions and energy consumption but also generates considerable benefits. Overall, this high-efficiency and low-carbon recycling strategy provides a promising direction for the development of spent LIBs recycling technology.

A Review of Lithium-Ion Battery Recycling: Technologies, Sustainability, and Open Issues

Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are a widely used energy storage technology as they possess high energy density and are characterized by the reversible intercalation/deintercalation of Li ions between electrodes. The rapid development of LIBs has led to increased production efficiency and lower costs for manufacturers, resulting in a growing demand for batteries and their application across various industries, particularly in different types of vehicles. In order to meet the demand for LIBs while minimizing climate-impacting emissions, the reuse, recycling, and repurposing of LIBs is a critical step toward achieving a sustainable battery economy. This paper provides a comprehensive review of lithium-ion battery recycling, covering topics such as current recycling technologies, technological advancements, policy gaps, design strategies, funding for pilot projects, and a comprehensive strategy for battery recycling. Additionally, this paper emphasizes the challenges associated with developing LIB recycling and the opportunities arising from these challenges, such as the potential for innovation and the creation of a more sustainable and circular economy. The environmental implications of LIB recycling are also evaluated with methodologies able to provide a sustainability analysis of the selected technology. This paper aims to enhance the comprehension of these trade-offs and encourage discussion on determining the “best” recycling route when targets are in conflict.