Receipt Of Assistance Research Articles

198. Adolescent Lives Matter: Social Well-Being of Sexual And Gender Minority Adolescents At-Risk For And Living With HIV

Young Black and Latinx gay and bisexual cisgender males (YGLGBM) and transwomen (TW) are key populations that carry a high burden of HIV. Potential drivers of elevated HIV risk include unstable housing, substance use and social pressures within relationships (forced anal sex without a condom). Less is known about whether perceived and actual financial well-being may be associated with HIV status. We sought to examine the association of HIV status with substance use, housing and social factors (exchanging sex, forced anal sex without a condom, and perceived financial well-being) in a sample of Black and Latinx YBLGBM/TW living in Baltimore, MD; Washington, DC; and Philadelphia, PA. YBLGBM/TW 15-24 years old living in Baltimore; Washington, DC; and Philadelphia were recruited via social media, outreach, respondent-driven sampling, and local clinics sites. Eligible participants were recruited to complete rapid HIV-1 testing and an electronic 45-minute survey that included questions on sociodemographics (age, education, housing); self-reported financial well-being (measured by receipt of food assistance) and perceived financial well-being; substance use; and sexual risk (exchange sex, forced anal sex without a condom). Chi-squared and Fisher’s exact tests were used to examine bivariate relationships associated with HIV status and Poisson regression was used to build a model of factors associated with HIV status. Data were analyzed using STATA 14®. Mean age of the sample was 21.2 (2.40 SD) and 93% were Black/African-American. Most (84%) were cisgender males, who identified as gay (66%) or bisexual (22%). Nearly one-quarter (23%) described exchanging sex for money, a place to stay or food in the last 12 months (21%). While 11% reported being forced to engage in anal sex without a condom. Substance use was common in the sample with 75% reporting alcohol and marijuana use and 41% reporting tobacco use. In bivariate analysis, HIV negative participants were younger, more likely to have a high school diploma and a cell phone; and less likely to: report tobacco, marijuana, and alcohol use; have a regular place to stay; engage in exchange sex; or have been forced not to use a condom during anal sex. There were no differences between groups with regard to financial well-being, gender identity or sexual orientation. In the final model, HIV negative participants were 16% less likely to report tobacco use and 18% less likely to report having been forced not use a condom during anal sex. This work suggests that YBLGBM/TW living in Baltimore; Washington, DC; and Philadelphia are vulnerable to substance use and unstable housing which may predispose some to exchange or survival sex. Youth living with HIV had higher rates of social instability and experiencing having been forced not to use a condom during anal sex, both of which may have contributed to HIV acquisition. In order to effectively prevent HIV acquisition in YBLGBM/TW more interventions will be needed that address the unstable housing, high substance use and the social factors that impact one's ability to negotiate condom use during anal sex.

The effect of housing assistance on student achievement: Evidence from Wisconsin

Drawing on a unique data set that links information on all Wisconsin households receiving means-tested benefits with the educational performance of all Wisconsin public school students in these households, we estimate the effect of a family's initial receipt of housing assistance on students’ subsequent achievement outcomes. We estimate these effects using two different comparison groups. Our first comparison group consists of children living in households that receive housing assistance starting four years after our treatment group—we use observations from those students’ pre-receipt years as the basis for the comparison. Our second comparison group consists of low-income students whose families never received housing assistance, but did receive other forms of means-tested benefits, such as SNAP, TANF, or Medicaid. Overall, our results suggest a positive relationship between housing assistance and math achievement, but the magnitude of this relationship is modest and not consistently statistically significant. We provide evidence that this relationship varies by student race and by type of housing assistance—a voucher or public housing. Throughout, we find little evidence of any relationship between housing assistance and student reading scores.

Predictors of Health Self-Management Program Preference Among Lower-to-Middle Wage Employed Adults With Chronic Health Conditions.

We examined the extent to which demographic, chronic disease burden, and financial strain characteristics were associated with a preference for engaging in the Chronic Disease Self-Management Program (presented as a "health self-management program" [HSMP]) over a financial self-management program (FSMP) and a no program preference (NPP) group among employed adults. Cross-sectional, correlation design using baseline data from a randomized controlled trial (RCT). The analytic sample included 324 workers aged 40 to 64 years with 1 or more chronic disease conditions recruited into the RCT from 2015 to 2017. Chronic disease burden measures included the number of chronic conditions, body mass index (BMI), and the 8-item and 15-item Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-8 and PHQ-15). Financial strain was measured as the inability to purchase essentials and food assistance receipt. Both individual and household measures of income were assessed. Multinomial logistic regression and post-hoc marginal effects models. Moderate-to-severe depressive symptoms increased the likelihood of having an HSMP preference when compared with those preferring the FSMP (RR = 4.2, P < .05) but not those having NPP; while higher BMI marginally increased HSMP preference over FSMP preference, but not NPP groups (RR = 1.04, P < .05). Financial strain differentially, but significantly, reduces the likelihood of HSMP preference at varying levels of household poverty, depressive symptom severity, and financial strain. Middle-aged, lower-to-middle income workers with moderate-to-severe depressive symptoms opt for HSMPs over FSMPs, but preference for HSMPs significantly diminished when they are experiencing financial strain.

The impact of social assistance programs on population health: a systematic review of research in high-income countries

BackgroundSocioeconomic disadvantage is a fundamental cause of morbidity and mortality. One of the most important ways that governments buffer the adverse consequences of socioeconomic disadvantage is through the provision of social assistance. We conducted a systematic review of research examining the health impact of social assistance programs in high-income countries.MethodsWe systematically searched Embase, Medline, ProQuest, Scopus, and Web of Science from inception to December 2017 for peer-reviewed studies published in English-language journals. We identified empirical patterns through a qualitative synthesis of the evidence. We also evaluated the empirical rigour of the selected literature.ResultsSeventeen studies met our inclusion criteria. Thirteen descriptive studies rated as weak (n = 7), moderate (n = 4), and strong (n = 2) found that social assistance is associated with adverse health outcomes and that social assistance recipients exhibit worse health outcomes relative to non-recipients. Four experimental and quasi-experimental studies, all rated as strong (n = 4), found that efforts to limit the receipt of social assistance or reduce its generosity (also known as welfare reform) were associated with adverse health trends.ConclusionsEvidence from the existing literature suggests that social assistance programs in high-income countries are failing to maintain the health of socioeconomically disadvantaged populations. These findings may in part reflect the influence of residual confounding due to unobserved characteristics that distinguish recipients from non-recipients. They may also indicate that the scope and generosity of existing programs are insufficient to offset the negative health consequences of severe socioeconomic disadvantage.

Mortality and Socioeconomic Consequences of Prescription Opioids: Evidence from State Policies

This article presents estimates of the effects of state prescription opioid policies on prescription opioid sales, mortality and socioeconomic outcomes of adults. Results indicate that state implementation of a “modern” PDMP is associated with decreases in opioid sales of between 5% and 20% and that pill mill laws are associated with a decrease in opioid sales of between 15% and 50%. The reductions in prescription opioid sales associated with these state policies were, in general, not associated with statistically significant effects on mortality. In the case of socioeconomic outcomes, we found consistent evidence that the adoption of a “modern” PDMP was associated with small, but statistically significant reductions in employment of 1% to 2% across all demographic groups examined; small reductions in earnings that were not statistically significant and similarly small, marginally significant increases in receipt of public assistance, particularly for women; and a significant, but small (1%) decline in the probability of being married among females. In contrast, pill mill laws were associated with marginally significant increases in employment of 1% to 2%, but only among those ages 18 to 25; small, but insignificant increases in earnings of males of between 2% to 4%; and a significant, but small (1%) decline in the probability of being married among all demographic groups.

Maternal Intellectual or Developmental Disability and Newborn Discharge to Protective Services.

Approximately half of women with intellectual and developmental disabilities (IDDs) lose custody of their children at some point in their child's development, but their rates of and risk factors for newborn discharge to child protective services from the birth hospitalization are relatively unknown. We conducted a population-based study of newborns of 3845 women with IDDs and 379 834 women without IDDs in Ontario, Canada (2002-2012). We used modified Poisson regression to estimate adjusted relative risks (aRRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for discharge to child protective services directly from the birth hospitalization (1) comparing newborns of women with and without IDDs and (2) among newborns of women with IDDs according to sociodemographic, health, service, and perinatal characteristics. Approximately 5.7% of newborns of women with IDDs, compared with 0.2% of newborns of women without IDDs, were discharged to child protective services (aRR 8.10; 95% CI 6.51-10.09). Among newborns of women with IDDs, risk factors were maternal psychotic disorder (aRR 2.58; 95% CI 1.90-3.50), social assistance receipt (aRR 2.55; 95% CI 1.87-3.47), failure to receive an ultrasound by 20 weeks' gestation (aRR 1.76; 95% CI 1.32-2.34), and receipt of <4 prenatal visits by 36 weeks' gestation (aRR 1.71; 95% CI 1.05-2.78). Although women with IDDs are at risk for custody loss immediately postdelivery, certain subgroups are at higher risk than others. Women with vulnerabilities related to comorbid psychotic disorders, poverty, and inadequate prenatal care may benefit from tailored, behavior-based parenting interventions before and during pregnancy to prevent maternal-newborn separations.

Social Identification, Widening Participation and Higher Education: Experiencing Similarity and Difference in an English Red Brick University

In 2012, the UK government introduced the National Scholarship Programme – a scheme that aimed to ensure that young people from families with low household incomes would not be discouraged from entry into higher education by increases in tuition fees. Drawing on longitudinal evidence in the form of 80 semi-structured interviews conducted in an English Red Brick University over a 3-year period, this article uses Jenkins’ work on social identification to examine the processes by which these post-2012 undergraduates used and experienced the financial support made available to them as part of the Programme. The article explores how the initially categorical label associated with being a student in receipt of financial assistance was variously understood and experienced as they moved through their degree. Not only did the additional finance allow students to avoid excessive part-time work, recipients also felt increasingly valued by the institution when they began to recognise how their financial circumstances differed from their peers, and that the university had made this provision for them. It remains to be seen whether these, more intangible, benefits of non-repayable financial support will transfer to the system of ‘enhanced’ loans that have subsequently replaced maintenance grants and the National Scholarship Programme.

Implementing housing first with families and young adults: challenges and progress toward self-sufficiency

The Housing First approach has shown promise in helping to combat homelessness among chronically homeless single males, but less is known about the approach when it is applied to families and young adults. This study examined data from a pilot Housing First program that served 78 families (n = 63) and single young adults (n = 15) with homeless histories and mental health and/or substance use disorders to explore program functioning and client service use patterns. Using an exploratory sequential mixed methods research design (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2011), qualitative interview data were conducted first, and quantitative administrative data and qualitative progress note data were then analyzed to explore ideas presented in the qualitative interviews. The in-depth qualitative interviews with staff (N = 9) collected information on program functioning and client successes and challenges. Quantitative data were collected on all 78 clients and sources included administrative data about return to homelessness, child welfare involvement, receipt of public assistance, and interactions with case managers. Qualitative exploration of a sample of client progress notes (N = 32) then followed. Integrating the findings, interviews suggested that clients faced many challenges, especially those related to having little to no income, multiple children, and stigmas, but that “success” would be indicated by needing their case managers less over time. We found that 89% remained enrolled in the program, 21% returned to shelter at some point, child welfare involvement decreased, and public assistance receipt increased after program entry. Content analysis of case management notes indicated that case managers worked with clients to develop independent living skills to improve clients' chances for becoming sufficient over the long-term.

Conditional Causal Mediation Analysis of Factors Associated With Cover Crop Adoption in Iowa, USA

AbstractThe Iowa Nutrient Reduction Strategy is a statewide effort that aims to encourage voluntary adoption of conservation practices by farmers to reduce the loss of nitrogen and phosphorus that contribute to water quality impairments in the Upper Midwest and drive hypoxic conditions in the Gulf of Mexico. This work is an analysis of the first 2 years (2015–2016) of a 5‐year survey of Iowa farmers. We employ causal mediation analysis to examine the direct and indirect effects of key explanatory variables (e.g., information sources, nutrient management influences, involvement in watershed management activities, and conservation technical assistance) and two causally ordered mediators (farmers' awareness of and attitudes toward the Nutrient Reduction Strategy) on cover crop use. Results showed that participation in watershed activities and receipt of cost share or technical assistance had positive direct effects on cover crop use, while low levels of perceived nutrient loss mitigation self‐efficacy had a negative direct effect. Information and influence of public sector soil and water conservation entities had positive indirect effects on cover crop use through awareness and attitudes, while influence of private sector agribusiness entities had negative indirect effects through those mediators. These results suggest that current strategies such as engaging farmers in watershed management activities and public sector cost share and technical assistance are increasing adoption of cover crops, but the data also point to a need to increase engagement with private sector actors to help them improve their effectiveness as conservation technical assistance providers.

Fill “half your child's plate with fruits and vegetables”: Correlations with food-related practices and the home food environment

This study examined the prevalence of parental report of children's adherence to USDA's MyPlate guidelines of ‘half of plate filled with fruits and vegetables (FV)’ and associations with child and parent/guardian report of food-related practices and the home food environment. Data for this study represent the baseline assessment (n = 160 parent-child dyads) of the Healthy Home Offerings via the Mealtime Environment (HOME) Plus study, a randomized controlled trial to prevent excess weight gain among 8-12 year-old children. Multiple logistic regression models examined associations between a newly created ‘half plate FV’ variable ‘During the past seven days how many times was half of your child's plate filled with fruits and vegetables at dinner?” and personal and home food environmental factors, including food availability, child fruit/vegetable intake, and healthy eating index (HEI), adjusted for race and receipt of public assistance. Parents reported their children had half their plates filled with FV at dinner on average 2.7 times in the past week. With each reported child intake of FV, the odds of having half their plates filled with FV were almost one and a half times greater; there were significantly higher odds of children having half their plates filled with FV with greater children's HEI, parent and child cooking skills and self-efficacy to cook healthy meals, family meal frequency, and availability of more types of fruits and vegetables in the home. The findings demonstrate that the MyPlate campaign's message of “half the plate filled with FV” can be used in nutrition interventions focusing on improving the home food environment and increasing children's FV intake; the survey item used in the present study may be effective in capturing adherence to the MyPlate message.

The Washington State Merged Longitudinal Administrative Database

This paper describes a uniquely comprehensive database constructed from merged state administrative data. State Unemployment Insurance (UI) systems provide an important source of data for understanding employment effects of policy interventions but have also lack several key types of information: personal demographics, non-earnings income, and household associations. With UI data, researchers can show overall earnings or employment trends or policy impacts, but cannot distinguish whether these trends or impacts differ by race or gender, how they affect families and children, or whether total income or other measure of well-being change. This paper describes a uniquely comprehensive new administrative dataset, the Washington Merged Longitudinal Administrative Database (WMLAD), created by University of Washington researchers to examine distributional and household economic effects of the Seattle $15 minimum wage ordinance, an intervention that more than doubled the federal minimum wage. &#x0D; WMLAD augments UI data with state administrative voter, licensing, social service, income transfer, and vital statistics records. The union set of all individuals who appear in any of these agency datasets will provide a near-census of state residents and will augment UI records with information on age, sex, race/ethnicity, public assistance receipt, and household membership. In this paper, we describe 1.) our relationship with the Washington State Department of Social and Health Services that permits this data access and allows construction of this dataset using restricted personal identifiers; 2.) the merging and construction process, including imputing race and ethnicity and constructing quasi-households from address co-location; and 3.) planned benchmarking and analysis work.

International aid in financing sustainable development

In the paper, the nature of official development assistance (ODA) viewed as a component of general international aid is considered, and mechanisms for providing aid in the context of international promotion of sustainable development are described. Also, the current world trends of providing official development assistance are highlighted, and constantly increasing amount of aid is determined. The latter demonstrates that the donor countries ensure the compliance with their international obligations related to the provision of concessional financing, and technical assistance to support the efforts that are being made by countries in the field of development.The dynamics in the amount of official development assistance is analyzed, and distribution of aid by sources of financing, regions, recipients and sectors is outlined. It is found that the largest flows of ODA go mainly to countries in Africa and Asia, and the smallest go to Europe, primarily to the education and healthcare sector, social infrastructure and economic development.It is pointed out that in Ukraine, one of the largest recipient countries of ODA in Europe, there is no holistic mechanism for analyzing the receipt, distribution and control of official development assistance viewed as an instrument of general international aid.The main challenges of mobilizing foreign assistance to Ukraine are outlined and key steps in addressing these matters are proposed. In order to promote efficient use of aid offered by foreign donors in the form of international assistance for the implementation of development programs in Ukraine, the following steps should be taken: to develop a public strategy for using international aid and a system of control for monitoring over international projects; to design a sound mechanism for analyzing the receipt, distribution and control of foreign assistance; to enhance staff performance in development, support and management of international projects in accordance with the requirements of providers of international aid; to establish a single coordinating body responsible for mobilizing international assistance.Taking these steps will increase the efficiency of using aid offered by foreign donors in the form of international assistance for the implementation of development programs and provide an opportunity to pursue sustainable development goals in Ukraine.

Housing and Health: Linking Population Health Survey Data to Housing Assistance Data

IntroductionThe linkage of survey data with administrative data enhances the scientific value and analytic potential of both sources of information. Combining multiple data sources facilitates richer analyses and allows data users to answer research questions that cannot be addressed easily using a single data source.&#x0D; Objectives and ApproachRecently, the United States National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS) and Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) collaborated to link two population health surveys conducted by NCHS with housing assistance program data maintained by HUD. The resulting linked data files enable researchers to examine relationships between the receipt of federal housing assistance and health. In this talk, we will describe some of the challenges faced when initiating a data sharing agreement between two federal agencies governed by distinct legislative authorities, particularly issues related to legal requirements and data access.&#x0D; ResultsWe will describe each of the data sources used in the linkage as well as the methodology used to combine the data. Lastly, the discussion will focus on the inter-agency collaboration that led to the production of the supporting technical documentation developed to assist researchers using the linked data files. The linkage of NCHS survey data and HUD administrative data serves as an example of how two agencies were able to overcome challenges to successfully form a data sharing partnership as a cost-effective means to develop a robust data source that benefits the collaborating agencies as well as policy makers and outside researchers.&#x0D; Conclusion/ImplicationsBoth agencies anticipate that this partnership will continue as additional survey and administrative data are collected.

Patient and Caregiver Perspectives on Managing Multiple Health Conditions.

To explore patient and caregiver experiences, preferences, and attitudes toward the provision and receipt of caregiving assistance with medical tasks. Qualitative study consisting of in-depth interviews with 20 patient-caregiver dyads. Community and academic-affiliated primary care clinics. Individuals aged 65 or older with 2 or more health conditions and their family caregivers (n=20 patient-caregiver dyads). Open-ended questions were asked about the tasks that the patient and caregiver performed to manage the patient's health conditions; questions were designed to elicit participant reactions and attitudes toward the help they provided or received. Transcripts were analyzed using the constant comparative method. Participant preferences and attitudes toward the receipt and provision of disease management tasks were highly personal. Participant responses clustered into 2 caregiving typologies: supportive caregiving relationships and conflicted caregiving relationships. Supportive relationships were characterized by patient-caregiver agreement about caregiver level of involvement, agreement about one another's competency to perform disease-related tasks, mutual understanding, collaborative decision-making and disease management, and use of family and formal caregiving. Conflicted relationships were characterized by disagreement about caregiver level of involvement, disagreement about one another's competency to perform disease management tasks, underappreciation of one another's experiences, disagreement over decision-making and disease management, and use of formal caregiving. The views that patient-caregiver dyads expressed in this study illustrate the varied preferences and attitudes toward caregiving assistance with multiple health conditions. These findings support a dyadic approach to evaluating and addressing patient and caregiver needs and attitudes toward provision of assistance.

Is Participation in Out-of-School Programs Linked to Students’ Health, Educational and Social Outcomes?

IntroductionOut-of-school programs for grade K-12 students support healthy behaviours, boost academic achievement, and strengthen social networks. The Boys and Girls Clubs of Winnipeg (BGCW) have been active for 40+ years; however, little is known about how participating in their programs influences students’ short- and long-term health, educational and social outcomes.&#x0D; Objectives and ApproachWe are investigating the association between participation in BGCW out-of-school programs using the individual-level data held in the population-based Manitoba Population Research Data Repository at the Manitoba Centre for Health Policy (MCHP). Data on BGCW program participation for children born 1987-2010 was linked with administrative records from the healthcare system, education system, and social services. The comparison group of non-participants was matched on age, sex, 3-digit postal code and school division. Outcomes of interest include health services use, teen pregnancy, grade repetition, high school graduation, enrollment in post-secondary institutions, receipt of income assistance, and involvement with the justice system.&#x0D; ResultsWe conducted analyses of children (K-8) attending the Community Schools Investigator (CSI) summer enrichment program, an academic and recreational program that aims to combat learning loss for children in low-income neighbourhoods. After one summer of CSI, participants (n=970) were significantly more likely to repeat a grade than the matched comparison group (n=783) (5.4% CSI students repeated a grade [95% CI 3.9, 6.8] vs 2.76% comparison students [95% CI 2.20, 3.32]). However, the likelihood of CSI students repeating a grade dropped to the level of the comparison group after two or more years of participation in CSI (2.91% CSI students repeated a grade [95% CI 1.26, 4.56]). Ongoing analyses are examining how participating in CSI and other BGCW programs is linked to health and social outcomes.&#x0D; Conclusion/ImplicationsOur findings suggest that engagement in a BGCW out-of-school summer program contributes to better educational outcomes for low-income students. Using the information-rich Data Repository at MCHP, we can examine additional outcomes across multiple sectors to demonstrate how out-of-school programs help young people achieve their full developmental potential.

Living Arrangements for Sex Offenders in Ohio: Effects of Economics, Law, and Government Assistance Programs

Throughout the United States, Sex Offender Registration and Notification (SORN) laws have created housing issues for registered sex offenders (RSOs). As a result of SORN, many RSOs may need to rely on family members for their housing needs. This study, drawing on data from 188 adult male RSOs in Ohio, focused on two separate SORN laws (i.e., Megan’s Law and the Adam Walsh Act). The findings suggest that neither law influences RSOs’ living with family members. However, the results did conclude that an RSO’s income, receipt of government assistance, or being on probation/parole predicted the odds of living with family members. Policy implications of such findings are discussed.

Maternal and child patterns of Medicaid retention: a prospective cohort study

BackgroundWe sought to determine whether maternal Medicaid retention influences child Medicaid retention because caregivers play a critical role in assuring children’s health access.MethodsWe conducted a longitudinal prospective cohort study of a convenience sample of 604 Medicaid-eligible mother-child dyads followed from the infant’s birth through 24 months of age with parent surveys. Individual enrollment status was abstracted from administrative Medicaid eligibility files. Generalized estimating equations quantified the effect of maternal Medicaid enrollment status on child Medicaid retention, adjusting for relevant covariates. Because varying lengths of gaps may have different effects on child health outcomes, Medicaid enrollment status was further categorized by length of gap: any gap, > 14-days, and > 60-days.ResultsThis cohort consists primarily of African-American (94%), unmarried mothers (88%), with a mean age of 23.2 years. In multivariable analysis, children whose mothers experienced any gaps in coverage had 12.6 times greater odds of experiencing gaps when compared to children whose mothers were continuously enrolled. Use of varying thresholds to define coverage gaps resulted in similar odds ratios (> 14-day gap = 11.8, > 60-day gap = 16.8). Cash assistance receipt and maternal knowledge of differences between Temporary Assistance to Needy Families and Medicaid eligibility criteria demonstrated strong protective effects against child Medicaid disenrollment.ConclusionsMedicaid disenrollment remains a significant policy problem and maternal Medicaid retention patterns show strong effects on child Medicaid retention. Policymakers need to invest in effective outreach strategies, including family-friendly application processes, to reduce enrollment barriers so that all eligible families can take advantage of these coverage opportunities.

Timing and duration of social assistance receipt during childhood on early adult outcomes

The experience of economic disadvantage during childhood is a major predictor of a variety of negative outcomes during early adulthood. This study provides evidence on the significance of timing of social assistance receipt during childhood on children’s later adjustment problems. The study uses data from the 1987 Finnish Birth Cohort (FBC), which covered all children born in Finland in 1987 (N=59476) and followed them until the age of 25. The data were gathered from Finnish registers that cover health and sociodemographic data for cohort members and their parents. Altogether 11,062 female (38.1%) and 11,537 male (37.9%) cohort members had parents who had received social assistance. Social assistance receipt during childhood increased the risk for all measured adjustment problems: early school leaving (OR 2.37), conviction (OR 1.87), teenage pregnancy (OR 1.89) and mental disorders (OR 1.68) even when adjusting for several social background variables. Economic disadvantage during early childhood (0–2 years) was found to associate with highest risk; all measured adjustment problems compared to exposure to poverty later in childhood. The study concludes that early childhood is a period in which children acquire cognitive and social competencies that form the basis for future wellbeing. Our analysis, based on a total nation-wide birth cohort, indicates that economic disadvantage in early childhood poses the most significant risk for later adjustment problems.

Determination of receipt of UPZ assistance using the SAW method

Zakat has a very strategic position in giving the impact of welfare and improving the community's economy if the collection and distribution are managed in trustworthy, transparent and professional. An institution on zakat management is National Zakat Agency (BAZNAS), which an institution manages the zakat management nationally, and non-structural government institution that is independent and responsible to President through the Minister of Religion. BAZNAS is located in capital city and assisted by zakat collection unit (UPZ). Along this time, they conduct manually in determining the person who will receive the assistance, but it often occur errors in its implementation. Therefore, a decision support system is needed to assist UPZ in determining the person who will receive the assistance. The decision support system was designed using SAW (Simple Additive Weighting) method, then the administrators obtain an alternative data in the form of lists of students who receive the UPZ assistance. The SAW algorithm is an algorithms for decision making. The SAW algorithm is also known as an algorithm with additive weighting method. The method requires normalization process of decision matrix (x) into a scale and can be compared to the entire available alternative ratings. The study showed that SAW can be applied to determine the acceptance of UPZ assistance by the calculation results of 16. The result of calculation and recommendation of decision support system for person who receive the UPZ acceptance, have the same data on output, namely Astin Dwi Wulan.

Maternal Socioeconomic Mobility and Preterm Delivery: A Latent Class Analysis.

Objective Growing evidence suggests that maternal socioeconomic mobility (SM) is associated with pregnancy outcomes. Our study investigated the association between maternal SM from childhood to adulthood and the risk of preterm delivery (PTD), and examined heterogeneity of associations by race/ethnicity. Methods In this study, 3019 pregnant women enrolled from 5 Michigan communities at 16-27 weeks' gestation (1998-2004) provided their parents' socioeconomic position (SEP) indicators (education, occupation, receipt of public assistance) and their own and child's father's SEP indicators (education, occupation, Medicaid status, and household income) at the time of enrollment. Latent class analysis was used to identify latent classes of childhood SEP indicators, adulthood SEP indicators, and SM from childhood to adulthood, respectively. A model-based approach to latent class analysis with distal outcome assessed relations between latent class and PTD, overall and within race/ethnicity groups. Results Three latent classes (low, middle, high) were identified for childhood SEP indicators and adulthood SEP indicators, respectively; while four latent classes (static low, upward, downward, and static high) best described SM. Women with upward SM had decreased odds of PTD (Odds ratio = 0.60, 95% confidence interval: 0.42, 0.87), compared to those with static low SEP. This SM advantage was true for all women and most pronounced in white/others women. Conclusions Maternal experiences of upward SM may be important considerations when assessing PTD risk. Our results support the argument that policies and programs aimed at improving women's SEP could lower PTD rates.