Rearfoot Strike Research Articles

Effects of Foot Strike Techniques on Running Biomechanics: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.

Distance running is one of the most popular physical activities, and running-related injuries (RRIs) are also common. Foot strike patterns have been suggested to affect biomechanical variables related to RRI risks. To determine the effects of foot strike techniques on running biomechanics. The databases of Web of Science, PubMed, EMBASE, and EBSCO were searched from database inception through November 2018. The initial electronic search found 723 studies. Of these, 26 studies with a total of 472 participants were eligible for inclusion in this meta-analysis. Systematic review and meta-analysis. Level 4. Means, standard deviations, and sample sizes were extracted from the eligible studies, and the standard mean differences (SMDs) were obtained for biomechanical variables between forefoot strike (FFS) and rearfoot strike (RFS) groups using a random-effects model. FFS showed significantly smaller magnitude (SMD, -1.84; 95% CI, -2.29 to -1.38; P < 0.001) and loading rate (mean: SMD, -2.1; 95% CI, -3.18 to -1.01; P < 0.001; peak: SMD, -1.77; 95% CI, -2.21 to -1.33; P < 0.001) of impact force, ankle stiffness (SMD, -1.69; 95% CI, -2.46 to -0.92; P < 0.001), knee extension moment (SMD, -0.64; 95% CI, -0.98 to -0.3; P < 0.001), knee eccentric power (SMD, -2.03; 95% CI, -2.51 to -1.54; P < 0.001), knee negative work (SMD, -1.56; 95% CI, -2.11 to -1.00; P < 0.001), and patellofemoral joint stress (peak: SMD, -0.71; 95% CI, -1.28 to -0.14; P = 0.01; integral: SMD, -0.63; 95% CI, -1.11 to -0.15; P = 0.01) compared with RFS. However, FFS significantly increased ankle plantarflexion moment (SMD, 1.31; 95% CI, 0.66 to 1.96; P < 0.001), eccentric power (SMD, 1.63; 95% CI, 1.18 to 2.08;P < 0.001), negative work (SMD, 2.60; 95% CI, 1.02 to 4.18; P = 0.001), and axial contact force (SMD, 1.26; 95% CI, 0.93 to 1.6; P < 0.001) compared with RFS. Running with RFS imposed higher biomechanical loads on overall ground impact and knee and patellofemoral joints, whereas FFS imposed higher biomechanical loads on the ankle joint and Achilles tendon. The modification of strike techniques may affect the specific biomechanical loads experienced on relevant structures or tissues during running.

Influence of the initial foot contact strategy on knee joint moments during stair and ramp descent

Gait modification strategies are effective in reducing knee joint loads, which are associated with the development and progression of knee osteoarthritis (OA). However, the effect of modification of the initial foot contact method in high-loading descending task was not investigated. Here, we show that the initial foot contact strategy significantly alters knee joint moments during descending tasks. We found that the second peak flexion moment was lower for the forefoot strike (FFS) than for the rearfoot strike (RFS) in both stair and ramp descent. As for the peak adduction moment, the second peak was lower for the FFS in stair descent, but two peaks were inconsistent in ramp descent. Our results demonstrate that the knee joint loads can be reduced by simple modification of the initial foot contact strategy. In both descending modalities, the FFS may benefit people with early OA in the patellofemoral joint, whose progression is associated with the peak flexion moment. Likewise, the FFS during stair descent may benefit people with early OA in the medial knee, whose progression is associated with the peak adduction moment. The results would be helpful for prevention and rehabilitation programmes of knee OA.

Footstrike pattern at the 10 km and 39 km points of the Singapore marathon in recreational runners

The prevalence of rearfoot striking is ∼60% in elite marathoners, but ∼90% in North American and European recreational marathoners. Recent data indicate that this prevalence is ∼70% in Asian recreational marathoners. How this prevalence changes throughout the course of a marathon remains undocumented. We filmed 350 runners at the 10 km and 39 km marks of the Singapore marathon (∼71% Asian field), and classified footstrike patterns in 347 and 327 runners at these locations. The prevalence of rearfoot, midfoot, forefoot, and asymmetric patterns was 65%, 21%, 33%, and 11% at 10 km, which differed significantly from the corresponding 77%, 15%, 1%, and 8% at 39 km (p < 0.01). The prevalence of non-rearfoot strikers at both filming locations was greater than reported in the literature for North American recreational marathoners (p < 0.01), but lower than reported for non-Asian elite marathoners (p ≤ 0.02). The 12% increase in rearfoot strikers at the later mark of the marathon in our Asian cohort of recreational runners was greater than the 5% increase reported for the North American-based cohort (p < 0.01), but comparable to the one reported for non-Asian elite runners (p = 0.97). Our findings confirm previous conclusions that running research should consider and report ethnicity alongside performance standards given that both can (in part) explain biomechanical differences in running gait. Noteworthy is that numerous factors can influence marathon performance and fatigue that here remained unaccounted for, including age, sex, course profile, footwear, and environmental conditions.

Men's and Women's World Championship Marathon Performances and Changes With Fatigue Are Not Explained by Kinematic Differences Between Footstrike Patterns.

World-class marathon runners make initial contact with the rearfoot, midfoot or forefoot. This novel study analyzed kinematic similarities and differences between rearfoot and non-rearfoot strikers within the men's and women's 2017 IAAF World Championship marathons across the last two laps. Twenty-eight men and 28 women, equally divided by footstrike pattern, were recorded at 29.5 and 40 km (laps 3 and 4, respectively) using two high-definition cameras (50 Hz). The videos were digitized to derive spatiotemporal and joint kinematic data, with additional footage (120 Hz) used to identify footstrike patterns. There was no difference in running speed, step length or cadence between rearfoot and non-rearfoot strikers during either lap in both races, and these three key variables decreased in athletes of either footstrike pattern to a similar extent between laps. Men slowed more than women between laps, and overall had greater reductions in step length and cadence. Rearfoot strikers landed with their foot farther in front of the center of mass (by 0.02–0.04 m), with non-rearfoot strikers relying more on flight distance for overall step length. Male rearfoot strikers had more extended knees, dorsiflexed ankles and hyperextended shoulders at initial contact than non-rearfoot strikers, whereas female rearfoot strikers had more flexed hips and extended knees at initial contact. Very few differences were found at midstance and toe-off. Rearfoot and non-rearfoot striking techniques were therefore mostly indistinguishable except at initial contact, and any differences that did occur were very small. The spatiotemporal variables that differed between footstrike patterns were not associated with faster running speeds and, ultimately, neither footstrike pattern prevented reductions in running speeds. The only joint angle measured at a specific gait event to change with fatigue was midswing knee flexion angle in men. Coaches should thus note that encouraging marathon runners to convert from rearfoot to non-rearfoot striking is unlikely to provide any performance benefits, and that training the fatigue resistance of key lower limb muscle-tendon units to avoid decreases in step length and cadence are more useful in preventing reductions in speed during the later stages of the race.

The Association Of Ground Reaction Forces With The Five Most Common Running Injuries

Inconsistent associations have been reported for ground reaction force (GRF) variables and running injuries when grouping all injuries together. However, previous work has shown more consistent associations when focusing on specific injuries. PURPOSE: To establish general and injury-specific associations between GRFs and five common running injuries. METHODS: 126 runners presenting with patellofemoral pain (PFP), tibial bone stress injury (TBSI), plantar fasciitis (PF), Achilles tendinitis, or iliotibial band syndrome and 70 healthy controls (CON) completed an instrumented treadmill assessment at a self-selected speed. All were rearfoot strikers. Injured/control groups were matched for gender and running speed. Vertical average and instantaneous load rates (VALR, VILR) were calculated over the first 15% of stance. Peak vertical, posterior, medial (mGRF), and lateral forces were calculated over all of stance. Mean comparisons were made between the general injury (INJ) and CON groups, and specific injuries and CON. Further, optimal cutoff values were established for variables using ROC curves. Area under the curve (AUC) and odds ratios (ORs) were used to evaluate their diagnostic value. RESULTS: Mean differences for variables between CON and injury groups are presented below. Only VALR, VILR and mGRF showed significant differences between groups (p<0.05). Cutoffs for VALR had superior diagnostic value for PFP and PF (OR=5.8-10.6, AUC=0.70-0.73) compared to INJ (OR=3.8, AUC=0.65). This trend held for VILR (PFP: OR=5.1, AUC=0.72; INJ: OR=3.5, AUC=0.64) and mGRF (TBSI: OR=8.8, AUC=0.74; INJ: OR=3.0, AUC=0.60). CONCLUSION: VALR, VILR and mGRF variables showed significant associations with running injury, even when grouped across injuries. However, associations were driven by PFP, PF and TBSI. Diagnostic value of variables was greatly improved when separating specific from general injuries.

Relationship Between Wearable Sensor Foot Strike Outcomes And Ankle Sagittal Plane Kinematics During Treadmill Running

PURPOSE: Wearable sensors are capable of measuring biomechanical running outcomes. Traditional gait analyses have determined a strong relationship between ankle angle at initial contact and foot strike. However, there is currently no information available on how sensor-derived metrics of foot strike type relate to ankle sagittal motion during running as a means of validation. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to validate the sensor-derived foot strike type outcome by determining the relationship between foot strike type and ankle sagittal plane kinematics during a treadmill running analysis. We hypothesized that a rearfoot strike (RFS) would highly correlate to increased ankle dorsiflexion, while a forefoot strike (FFS) would highly correlate to increased ankle plantarflexion. METHODS: Twenty collegiate cross-country athletes (12 females) ran on an instrumented treadmill with 3-D motion capture at standard (2.68 m/s) and fast (3.60 m/s) speeds. Foot strike outcomes were obtained bilaterally using running wearable sensors, and sagittal plane ankle kinematics were simultaneously recorded. Pearson’s r correlation coefficients were used to determine the relationship between sensor-derived foot strike categories (1 to 16), and ankle angles at initial contact. Dorsiflexion was defined as in the positive axis. Alpha was set a priori to .05 for all analyses. RESULTS: Eight hundred total steps were included for analysis. Foot strike type and ankle angles at initial contact had a strong, inverse correlation, such that a higher foot strike value was strongly related to increased ankle plantarflexion angles (r = -0.85, p<.001, Figure). CONCLUSIONS: Sensor-derived foot strike metrics were highly correlated to sagittal plane ankle measures, thus confirming our initial hypotheses. These outcomes support that the running wearable sensors are a valid means to assess foot strike patterns during distance running.

Load Transference with Running Speed in Natural Rear-foot Strike Male Runners

Load Transference with Running Speed in Natural Rear-foot Strike Male Runners

Biomechanical effects following footstrike pattern modification using wearable sensors

ObjectivesThis study sought to examine the biomechanical effects of an in-field sensor-based gait retraining program targeting footstrike pattern modification during level running, uphill running and downhill running. DesignQuasi-experimental design. MethodsSixteen habitual rearfoot strikers were recruited. All participants underwent a baseline evaluation on an instrumented treadmill at their preferred running speeds on three slope settings. Participants were then instructed to modify their footstrike pattern from rearfoot to non-rearfoot strike with real-time audio biofeedback in an 8-session in-field gait retraining program. A reassessment was conducted to evaluate the post-training biomechanical effects. Footstrike pattern, footstrike angle, vertical instantaneous loading rate (VILR), stride length, cadence, and knee flexion angle at initial contact were measured and compared. ResultsNo significant interaction was found between training and slope conditions for all tested variables. Significant main effects were observed for gait retraining (p-values≤0.02) and slopes (p-values≤0.01). After gait retraining, 75% of the participants modified their footstrike pattern during level running, but effects of footstrike pattern modification were inconsistent between slopes. During level running, participants exhibited a smaller footstrike angle (p≤0.01), reduced VILR (p≤0.01) and a larger knee flexion angle (p=0.01). Similar effects were found during uphill running, together with a shorter stride length (p=0.01) and an increased cadence (p≤0.01). However, during downhill running, no significant change in VILR was found (p=0.16), despite differences found in other biomechanical measurements (p-values=0.02–0.05). ConclusionAn 8-session in-field gait retraining program was effective in modifying footstrike pattern among runners, but discrepancies in VILR, stride length and cadence were found between slope conditions.

Incorporating subject-specific geometry to compare metatarsal stress during running with different foot strike patterns

Stress fracture of the second metatarsal is a common and problematic injury for runners. The choice of foot strike pattern is known to affect external kinetics and kinematics but its effect on internal loading of the metatarsals is not well understood. Subject-specific models of the second metatarsal can be used to investigate internal loading in a non-invasive manner. This study aimed to compare second metatarsal stress between habitual rearfoot and non-rearfoot strikers during barefoot running, using a novel subject-specific mathematical model, including accurate metatarsal geometry. Synchronised force and kinematic data were collected during barefoot overground running from 20 participants (12 rearfoot strikers). Stresses were calculated at the plantar and dorsal periphery of the midshaft of the metatarsal using a subject-specific beam theory model. Non-rearfoot strikers demonstrated greater external loading, bending moments and compressive forces than rearfoot strikers, but there were no differences in peak stresses between groups. Statistical parametric analysis revealed that non-rearfoot strikers had greater second metatarsal stresses during early stance but that there was no difference in peak stresses. This emphasises the importance of bone geometry when estimating bone stress and supports the suggestion that external forces should not be assumed to be representative of internal loading.

Foot strike pattern during running alters muscle-tendon dynamics of the gastrocnemius and the soleus

Running is thought to be an efficient gait due, in part, to the behavior of the plantar flexor muscles and elastic energy storage in the Achilles tendon. Although plantar flexor muscle mechanics and Achilles tendon energy storage have been explored during rearfoot striking, they have not been fully characterized during forefoot striking. This study examined how plantar flexor muscle-tendon mechanics during running differs between rearfoot and forefoot striking. We used musculoskeletal simulations, driven by joint angles and electromyography recorded from runners using both rearfoot and forefoot striking running patterns, to characterize plantar flexor muscle-tendon mechanics. The simulations revealed that foot strike pattern affected the soleus and gastrocnemius differently. For the soleus, forefoot striking decreased tendon energy storage and fiber work done while the muscle fibers were shortening compared to rearfoot striking. For the gastrocnemius, forefoot striking increased muscle activation and fiber work done while the muscle fibers were lengthening compared to rearfoot striking. These changes in gastrocnemius mechanics suggest that runners planning to convert to forefoot striking might benefit from a progressive eccentric gastrocnemius strengthening program to avoid injury.

Twelve-Week Gait Retraining Reduced Patellofemoral Joint Stress during Running in Male Recreational Runners.

Purpose To explore the changes in knee sagittal angle and moment and patellofemoral joint (PFJ) force and stress before and after 12-week gait retraining. Methods A total of 30 healthy male recreational runners were randomized into a control group (n = 15) who ran in their original strike pattern using minimalist shoes or experimental group (n = 15) who ran in a forefoot strike pattern using minimalist shoes during the 12-week gait retraining. The kinematic and kinetic data of the dominant leg of the participants during the 12 km/h running were collected by 3D motion capture systems and 3D force platforms. Besides, the biomechanical property of the PFJ was calculated on the basis of the joint force model and the regression equation of the contact area. Results After the 12-week gait retraining, 78% of the rearfoot strikers turned into forefoot strikers. Peak knee extension moment and peak PFJ stress decreased by 13.8% and 13.3% without altering the running speed, respectively. Meanwhile, no changes in maximum knee flexion angle/extension moment and PFJ force/stress were observed for the control group. Conclusion The 12-week gait retraining effectively reduced the PFJ stress, thereby providing a potential means of reducing the risk of patellofemoral pain syndrome while running.

Improving running economy through altered shoe bending stiffness across speeds

Increasing the longitudinal bending stiffness of running shoes decreases energy cost until a low point is reached, suggesting an optimal shoe stiffness. Previous research found optimal stiffness varies among individuals, however, none has determined the causes of variation both between individuals and running speeds. The primary purpose of this study was to understand how optimal shoe stiffness is affected by running speed. A secondary purpose examined the anatomical and biomechanical characteristics associated with optimal stiffness variation. Six shoe stiffness conditions were manufactured with a carbon fibre plate between the midsole and outsole of a standard running shoe. Twenty-one male runners (mass = 67.1 ± 5.0 kg, height = 178.9 cm ± 4.0 cm, age = 26.4 ± 8.4 years) completed testing at 2.98 m/s and 4.47 m/s in all shoe conditions, measuring metabolic cost, and several biomechanical and anatomical variables. Data were separated by foot strike. At the fast speed, average optimal stiffness was 19.29 ± 5.62 N/mm with a metabolic benefit of 3.02 ± 2.62%. Slow speed average optimal stiffness was 17.04 ± 6.09 N/mm with a metabolic benefit of 1.93 ± 1.82%. Only rearfoot strikers demonstrated a significant increase in optimal stiffness (p = .04) across speeds. There were no correlations between any of the measured anatomical or biomechanical variables and optimal stiffness. Optimal stiffness varied between subjects but was not correlated to any of our measured characteristics. Rearfoot striking runners may benefit from a higher stiffness shoe at faster speeds to enable optimal performance.

Effects of heel-toe drop on running biomechanics and perceived comfort of rearfoot strikers in standard cushioned running shoes

Effects of heel-toe drop, which is the height difference between the rearfoot and forefoot parts of the shoe, have been studied during running in minimalist shoe models. However, these types of shoes also feature low heel stack height. Effects of heel-toe drop remain largely unknown during running in cushioned shoes, which usually present a standard heel stack height (e.g. 21 mm). The purpose of this study was to investigate the isolated effect of heel-toe drop on running kinematics and kinetics and perceived footwear comfort of runners in standard cushioned shoes. Fifteen male habitual rearfoot strike runners ran in four shod conditions: no drop (0 mm, D0), 4-mm (D4), 8-mm (D8), and 12-mm drop (D12). Running kinematics and kinetics were collected using motion capturing system and instrumented treadmill, respectively. Footwear comfort was acquired immediately after each running trial using a visual analogue scale. Significant effects were demonstrated on footstrike angle (p < 0.001), stride length (p = 0.005), and cadence (p = 0.015). A greater footstrike angle was indicated during running in D8 compared with D4 (p = 0.034) and D0 (p = 0.006). However, such reduction was not sufficient to cause footstrike pattern transition towards a midfoot/forefoot strike pattern. Stride length in D8 was significantly larger than in D12 (p = 0.007). No significances were found on vertical loading rates, contact time and perceived footwear comfort (p > 0.05). The isolated effects of heel-toe drop on running biomechanics were demonstrated in shoe models with a standard heel stack height. A lower heel-toe drop of standard cushioned shoes may reduce footstrike angle and increase stride length during running.

Tibial Acceleration Measured from Wearable Sensors Is Associated with Loading Rates in Injured Runners.

The loadrate of the vertical ground reaction force at impact has been associated with a variety of running injuries. Peak tibial shocks occur during the early stance phase and has been shown to be correlated to the loadrates in healthy runners using a rearfoot strike pattern. As a result, tibial accelerometry has been used as a surrogate for loadrates. However, these correlations have not been assessed in injured runners nor in runners with differing footstrike patterns. To examine the relationship between tibial acceleration and loadrates in injured runners who are habitual rearfoot (RFS), midfoot (MFS), and forefoot (FFS) strikers. Tibial acceleration was expected to be positively associated with loadrates across all footstrike patterns. Cross-sectional cohort. Academic medical center with biomechanics laboratory. One hundred sixty-nine injured runners (age 38.7 ± 13.1 years, 127 RFS, 17 MFS, 25 FFS). Each participant completed a biomechanical assessment for injury including evaluation on a force treadmill with a triaxial accelerometer fastened by a Velcro strap to the distal medial tibia. Peak vertical and resultant tibial acceleration (VTA, RTA) were measured from the accelerometer. Vertical average and instantaneous loadrates (VALR, VILR) and the resultant instantaneous loadrate (RILR) were determined from the force data. The relationship between tibial acceleration and loadrates measured using Pearson's correlation coefficient (r). Loadrates were each associated with VTA (r = 0.66-0.82, P < .001) and RTA (r = 0.41-0.68, P < .05) across all footstrike groups with the exception of association of VILR to RTA in the FFS group. The strength in correlations was lowest between RTA and loadrates for the FFS runners (r = 0.41-0.47, P < .05). Vertical tibial acceleration is the stronger surrogate for loadrates in injured runners across differing footstrike patterns.

Alterations in Running Biomechanics after 12 Week Gait Retraining with Minimalist Shoes

Purpose: The intervention of 12 week gait retraining with minimalist shoes was established to examine its effect on impact forces, joint mechanics, and vertical stiffness during running. Methods: Thirty male recreational runners were randomly assigned to the gait retraining + minimalist shoe (n = 15, GR) and minimalist shoe (n = 15, MIN) groups. The ground reaction force and marker trajectories were collected before and after intervention at a speed of 3.33 ± 5% m/s. Results: A total of 17 participants (9 in the GR group and 8 in the MIN group) completed the training. After training, (1) the loading rate of both groups decreased significantly, and the loading rate of the GR group was lower than that of the MIN group. (2) The foot strike angle of the GR group decreased significantly after training, and the plantarflexion angle and hip joint angular extension velocity increased in both groups. (3) The moment of ankle joint increased in the GR group, and the stiffness of lower limbs was significantly improved in both groups. Conclusion: The 12 week gait retraining with minimalist shoes converted rearfoot strikers into forefoot strikers with a rate of 78% (7/9). More importantly, such a combined program, compared to the training with only minimalist shoes, can avoid the peak impact force and decrease the loading rate more effectively, thus providing a potential means of reducing risk of running injury caused by impact forces. Moreover, the increased vertical stiffness of lower extremity after gait retraining may improve running economy and corresponding energy utilization. However, these observations also suggest that the sole use of minimalist footwear may have limited effects on reducing running-related impacts.

Plantar load characteristics among runners with different strike patterns during preferred speed

ObjectivesThis study aimed to compare the plantar loads between habitual rearfoot strike (RFS) and non-RFS (NRFS) during running under the participant’s preferred speed. MethodsA total of 66 (36 RFS, 30 NRFS) healthy amateur male runners were included in our study. In-shoe pressure sensors were utilised to the test plantar loads when participants were running using their preferred foot strike pattern and running speed (RFS: 3.2 ± 0.3 m/s; NRFS: 3.4 ± 0.4 m/s). ResultsResults indicated that running speed has a significant effect on the total contact area [F (1, 64) = 7.061, P = 0.01, η2 = 0.101], which also affects midfoot and forefoot regions. No significant difference was found on the total maximum force, force-time-integral, peak pressure (PP) and pressure-time-integral (PTI), but the total contact area of RFS was higher than that of NRFS runners [F (1, 64) = 77.406, P < 0.001, η2 = 0.551]. Plantar loads were mainly focused on the heel and midfoot for RFS runners in all variables, and NRFS runners experienced increased PP and PTI in medial forefoot regions. ConclusionHabitual runners tend to adjust their contact area according to the running speed through midfoot and forefoot regions. RFS runners remain susceptible to high impact force on the heel and midfoot, and NRFS runners experience high impact force in the first metatarsal regions. Therefore, runners should note this situation to avoid running-related injuries.

The effects of midfoot strike gait retraining on impact loading and joint stiffness

ObjectiveTo assess the biomechanical changes following a systematic gait retraining to modify footstrike patterns from rearfoot strike (RFS) to midfoot strike (MFS). DesignPre-post interventional study. All participants underwent a gait retraining program designed to modify footstrike pattern to MFS. SettingResearch laboratory. ParticipantsTwenty habitual RFS male runners participated. Main outcome measuresGait evaluations were conducted before and after the training. Footstrike pattern, vertical loading rates, ankle and knee joint stiffness were compared. ResultsParticipants’ footstrike angle was reduced (p < 0.001, Cohen’s d = 1.65) and knee joint stiffness was increased (p = 0.003, Cohen’s d = 0.69). No significant difference was found in the vertical loading rates (p > 0.155). Further subgroup analyses were conducted on the respondents (n = 8, 40% of participants) who exhibited MFS for over 80% of their footfalls during the post-training evaluation. Apart from the increased knee joint stiffness (p = 0.005, Cohen’s d = 1.14), respondents exhibited a significant reduction in the ankle joint stiffness (p = 0.019, Cohen’s d = 1.17) when running with MFS. ConclusionsGait retraining to promote MFS was effective in reducing runners’ footstrike angle, but only 40% of participants responded to this training program. The inconsistent training effect on impact loading suggests a need to develop new training protocols in an effort to prevent running injuries.

Is There a Relationship Between Strike Pattern and Injury During Running: A Review

<strong>Object:</strong> Recently people have shown an interest in running barefoot or with minimalist shoes, which result in forefoot strike (FFS) patterns that are different from running in normal shod with the rearfoot strike (RFS). To date, there is a dispute whether runners’ footfall pattern has an important impact on running injuries. Therefore, the purpose of this review is to investigate whether there is a relationship between different strike patterns and running injuries by reviewing the literature. <strong>Materials and Methods:</strong> A database retrieval and reference search were carried out with PubMed, Scopus, Google Scholar, and ScienceDirect. In the final review, 10 papers were included by matching the inclusion criteria. <strong>Results:</strong> Barefoot running exhibited smaller impact forces, short stride length, higher strike frequency, and shorter contact times compared to the standard shod condition. The forefoot strike pattern showed an increase in the plantarflexed foot, more ankle compliance during impact, smaller loading at the knee and lowered vertical loading rate in the FFS pattern than RFS. <strong>Discussion:</strong> Although the running injury is driven by multi-factorial variables, our literature review did not show any scientific evidence to suggest that footfall patterns are directly related to running injury.

Influence of Swing-Foot Strike Pattern on Balance Control Mechanisms during Gait Initiation over an Obstacle to Be Cleared

Gait initiation (GI) over an obstacle to be cleared is a functional task that is highly challenging for the balance control system. Two swing-foot strike patterns were identified during this task—the rearfoot strike (RFS), where the heel strikes the ground first, and the forefoot strike (FFS), where the toe strikes the ground first. This study investigated the effect of the swing-foot strike pattern on the postural organisation of GI over an obstacle to be cleared. Participants performed a series of obstacle clearance tasks with the instruction to strike the ground with either an FFS or RFS pattern. Results showed that anticipatory postural adjustments in the frontal plane were smaller in FFS than in RFS, while stability was increased in FFS. The vertical braking of the centre of mass (COM) during GI swing phase was attenuated in FFS compared to RFS, leading to greater downward centre of mass velocity at foot contact in FFS. In addition, the collision forces acting on the foot were smaller in FFS than in RFS, as were the slope of these forces and the slope of the C7 vertebra acceleration at foot contact. Overall, these results suggest an interdependent relationship between balance control mechanisms and foot strike pattern for optimal stability control.

Change in foot strike patterns and performance in recreational runners during a road race: A cross-sectional study

ObjectivesTo characterise foot strike and observe change in foot strike patterns with increasing distance during a 15km recreational running road race. To assess the impact of foot strike on running performance. DesignObservational cross-sectional study. MethodsFoot strike patterns were determined at the 3km and 13km checkpoints for 459 participants during the 2017 Melbourne City to Sea recreational running event. Foot strike patterns were categorised as either rearfoot strike (RFS) or non-rearfoot strike (NRFS) at both checkpoints and analyses were conducted on intra-individual change in foot strike as well as relationship to finishing time. ResultsThe most prevalent foot strike pattern at 3km and 13km was RFS with 76.9% (95% CI: 73.2%–80.5%) and 91.0% (95% CI: 88.7%–93.1%) using this pattern, respectively. Of the 105 participants who ran with a NRFS at 3km, 61% changed to RFS at 13km. Race completion time differed by foot strike pattern, where mean time for consistent NRFS (62.64±11.20min) was significantly faster than consistent RFS (72.58±10.84min; p<0.001) and those who changed from NRFS to RFS between checkpoints (67.93±10.60min; p=0.040). ConclusionsWhile the majority of recreational distance runners RFS within race settings, the fastest runners were those who consistently ran with a NRFS. In runners that use a NRFS early, a large proportion change to RFS as distance increases. Further research is warranted to determine whether interventions aimed at reducing muscular fatigue can attenuate this change and enhance running performance.