Realist School Research Articles

‘Caught in the middle’: Effects on and reactions of Vietnamese timber exporters in the context of US-China economic sanctions

The impact of primary sanctions on firms has been well-documented in the literature. However, the impact of secondary sanctions on businesses in third countries and their strategic responses has been under-researched. This study explores this issue by investigating Vietnamese timber exporters in the context of US-China economic sanctions. Taking a case study approach, interviews were conducted with key government and industry officials as well as firms in Vietnam. Using the key concepts from the realism school of thought and the stakeholder theory as the analytical lenses, we found that third countries’ businesses encountered both positive and negative impacts of the sanctions and employed four strategies, namely aligning, aspiring, influencing, and insulating to respond to the challenges and opportunities these sanctions presented. This study contributes to identifying the notion of temporality and explaining how and when third-country firms intertwine both reactive and anticipatory strategies.

A cosmopolitan approach to international law (CAIL) reflection on the space development experience of Africa

Space power theory from the realist school states that the proliferation of space technology is a foe rather than a friend because it contributes to military and economic competition; and, above all, it empowers the exercise of threat of force in, through and from Outer Space. It is thus important to examine questions of justice in one's professional field and locate the analysis of one's practice within wider social, economic, and political context. While law is not justice and simply announces the form of justice sought, the approach taken in this paper is more precisely the lived experience or mental processes of consciousness and its aim begins a conversation to investigate this in a rigorous way. The cognitive act that characterizes the phenomenological reflection is “paying attention.” Therefore, this reflection contemplates the relevance of experience and reflective practice as a valuable methodology for using insights and learning from the past to support the assessment of the present and recommendations for the future. This is applied in the case of over 17 years of personal experience in following the development path of African space programs. The paper concludes that the African case confirms that multi-level governance is an approach that is of importance, and Africa is in a unique position to master this as stakeholders must think about how to engage in space development at all 4 levels: the global, regional, national, and local level.

The civilization state in the war against Ukraine

ABSTRACT Do considerations of civilization play a role in the Russian aggression against Ukraine? This study starts from the assumption that the conflict in Ukraine cannot be fully explained by the arguments of John Mearsheimer, the main representative of the so-called offensive realist school of international relations theory, who argues that the Russian invasion is driven by fear of NATO’s eastward expansion. The author challenges this dominant explanatory framework, arguing that we need to dig deeper to understand Putin’s intentions. The paper focuses on the role of the “civilizational state” created by the Putin regime and analyzes the role of its guiding ideology, Eurasianism. The author concludes that the war in Ukraine must be interpreted in the context of the confrontation between the West and Russia, and that this development cannot be understood without taking into account the specific logic and offensive nature of the Russian civilization state.

The proxy war in Ukraine

Overwhelming empathy with all the civilians and conscripts who have suffered from the ongoing violence in Ukraine, which began years before the Russian invasion of February 2022, must be complemented by analysis and explanation. What can anthropologists contribute? I have been disappointed by one-sided accounts endorsing the government of President Volodymyr Zelensky and the cause of the Ukrainian nation that have dominated in the Western mass media and anglophone academic work, including that of anthropologists. From an anthropological perspective, to invoke international law and sacralize political sovereignty is inadequate (Hann 2023; Malinowski 1944). Instead, we need to scrutinize the complex history of the Ukrainian nation, which is being consummated through the present violence. We need to recognize that Zelensky heads an Atlanticist, market-oriented, nationalist regime of dubious legitimacy. This critical stance does not mean deference to the Kremlin in the spirit of the “realist school” of international relations. It does mean recalling that as late as autumn 2021 President Vladimir Putin was putting forward proposals for a peaceful resolution of the crisis brought about by Western geopolitical and economic ambitions since the end of the Cold War. For the Russian political classes (not just for Putin and his oligarchical allies), when it came to NATO expansion Ukraine was a unique red line. However, too many interest groups in Washington as well as in Kyiv actually wanted the war that began in February 2022 (though this could not be declared publicly).

The proxy war in Ukraine

Overwhelming empathy with all the civilians and conscripts who have suffered from the ongoing violence in Ukraine, which began years before the Russian invasion of February 2022, must be complemented by analysis and explanation. What can anthropologists contribute? I have been disappointed by one-sided accounts endorsing the government of President Volodymyr Zelensky and the cause of the Ukrainian nation that have dominated in the Western mass media and anglophone academic work, including that of anthropologists. From an anthropological perspective, to invoke international law and sacralize political sovereignty is inadequate (Hann 2023; Malinowski 1944). Instead, we need to scrutinize the complex history of the Ukrainian nation, which is being consummated through the present violence. We need to recognize that Zelensky heads an Atlanticist, market-oriented, nationalist regime of dubious legitimacy. This critical stance does not mean deference to the Kremlin in the spirit of the “realist school” of international relations. It does mean recalling that as late as autumn 2021 President Vladimir Putin was putting forward proposals for a peaceful resolution of the crisis brought about by Western geopolitical and economic ambitions since the end of the Cold War. For the Russian political classes (not just for Putin and his oligarchical allies), when it came to NATO expansion Ukraine was a unique red line. However, too many interest groups in Washington as well as in Kyiv actually wanted the war that began in February 2022 (though this could not be declared publicly).

Unmasking International Relations in the Times of War in Africa: Beyond Rhetoric, Reality and Trust

This paper unmasks the concept of international relations using the lenses of realist school of thought. Relations of nation states towards each other, and with international organisations, including sub national entities is what international relations (IR) is all about (Antunes and Camisao, 2018; Adams, 2003; Wendt, 1992; Axelrod and Keohane 1993). The significance of IR in the contemporary world, as it were in the past cannot be overemphasized. It seeks to comprehend the roots of war and the preservation of peace both stemming from the nature and exercise of power within the global system. To this effect, the discipline of international relations comprises of numerous theories, each attempting to explain the power relations and the resultant behaviour of nation states on the international scene. Of particular interest to this article is how the realism theory of IR enhances the prospects of cooperation within the international environment and the realists’ main obstacles to achieving cooperation in international development. As one of the many theories in the IR discourse, Realism claims to explain the reality of international politics. Realists believe that sovereign states are the principal actors on the international political system, having at their disposal justifiable actions or tools for the protection of their interests. Proponents of realism argue that states are unitary and rational actors of importance seeking to secure their survival through reliance on their own means even if it meant war (Glaser, 1994; Brown, 2007; Milner, 1992).Drawing from secondary sources of data and using a desk top review approach, this study found that realists come close to explaining the actual happenings on the IR scene i.e. the survival of the state at all costs, also called the ethics of responsibility rather than by moral principles as other theorists argue. Realism as a school of thought in the IR discourse has generated a significant volume of debate and criticisms igniting valuable insights and remains an important analytical tool for stakeholders in IR.

Mulla Sadra's Realism on The Principle of Ittihad al-'Aqil wa al-Ma'qul: A Response to Modern Realism

<span id="docs-internal-guid-6eb786c7-7fff-c73a-b069-03c5ca0fb7a1"><span>This article attempts to show Mulla Sadra’s model of realism by tracing it through his philosophical principles, especially the principle of </span><span>Ittihad 'Aqil wa Ma'qul</span><span> (subject-object unity). Furthermore, the study of the Sadra realism model, which is based on the principle of </span><span>Ittihad 'Aqil wa Ma'qul,</span><span> is presented to respond to fundamental epistemic-ontological issues, namely the relationship between the subject’s consciousness and external objects, in order to strengthen belief in the nature and existence of external reality, which is independent of contamination of the subject's mental decisions (mind-independent reality). How does the subject's consciousness relate to external objects? This problem is still an anxiety and has not been resolved by modern philosophers who focus on the discourse of perception, giving rise to various schools of realism, which are represented by two major schools: direct realism and indirect realism. By overcoming these epistemic problems, ultimately, this effort leads to the confirmation of Mulla Sadra's more original and comprehensive model of realism. This paper is attempted using a critical-analytical method, namely analyzing Mulla Sadra's philosophical ideas on the </span><span>Ittihad 'Aqil wa Ma'qul</span><span> principles and the views of modern realism by focusing on the issue of perception. The conclusions drawn from the results of the analysis of the </span><span>Ittihad 'Aqil wa Ma'qul</span><span> were used as a basis for responding to modern realism as well as an affirmation of Mulla Sadra's style of realism.</span></span>

The Implications of Realism School in the Printed Advertisement

The study titled "The implications of Realism School in Printed Advertisements" delves into the significant themes related to reality and truth as a central focus in art, in contrast to other themes that rely on imagination. Realism School stands as one of the most prominent artistic movements that emerged as a reaction to Romanticism, which sought to escape reality and delve deep into imagination, illusions, and dreams. Realism, as a doctrine, places material, tangible reality as the primary consideration and envisions things clearly as they are in the real world. The research consists of four chapters. The first chapter presents the research problem, encapsulated in the question: "What are the reflections of Realism School in printed advertisements?" The objective is to uncover these reflections and define the key terms. The second chapter comprises two sections: the first discusses the foundations and concepts of Realism School, while the second explores the function and aesthetics of printed advertisements in social reality. This chapter concludes with indications of the theoretical framework. The third chapter elucidates the research community, research methodology, research tools, and the analysis of the research sample. Finally, the fourth chapter contains the research's conclusions.

The Dialogue of the Russian Realistic Tradition and Avant-Garde Trends in Painting in the “Studio of Konstantin Yuon”

The article examines the period of training of young Russian artists in the Moscow “Studio of Konstantin Yuon” in 1900–1917, who later became bright representatives of avant-garde trends in painting from the point of view of the mutual infl uence of the teacher’s creative manner and the artistic pursuits of novice painters who gravitated to the study of current trends in the European artistic process. The purpose of the study is to determine the nature of the relationship between the artistic principles of the Russian realist school and the creative attitudes of the representatives of future avant-garde trends in painting during their training in the studio of K. Yuon in the early 20th century. The results of the work show that despite the fact that K. Yuon was a representative of the Russian realist tradition, in his work of that period, as well as in the works of the students of his studio, there is not so much opposition between the aesthetic and artistic methods of Russian realism and the emerging avant-garde movements, but rather a dialog and mutual enrichment of plastic methods, which had a signifi cant infl uence on the formation of the creative manner of the artists.

A SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVIST CRITIQUE TO POWER-TRANSITION THEORY AS A PREDICTOR OF WAR

The concept of power is inadvertently one of the most central topics in the field of politics. The concept has been intriguing for mankind as long as the human memory goes. Especially the realist school of thought has a primary focus on the power-narrative. One of the earliest studies undertaken was that of A.F.K. Organski who wrote World Politics in 1958 that constructed indicators what state power may or may not constitute. Organski’s work being explanatory has prompted a scientific prediction of war based on these indicators. Power Transition Theory provides relevance from a practical realist stance in today’s turbulent international order elaborating on Nation, International Relations and International Organizations. Constructivism criticizes the predictive abilities and the absoluteness as quick turn of events can make mockery of the tidiest of theories. However, this paper seeks to establish an alternative criticism to the Power Transition Theory as discussed in a vast body of literature on how wars are predicted during a transition of power on basis of Index of National Capability (INC).

Security Dilemma Between USA and China: A Strategic Perception Approach

This paper approaches the "Security Dilemma" as the cornerstone of Realist school of thought strategic Theory. According to that, states are regularly trapped into competition escalations, due to the lack of a clear “opponent” strategy and operational decisions’ understanding. This situation, leads to political distrust, occurring economical rivalries and military conflicts. Subsequently, 21st century China’s commercial and military power rising, creates fear for the states in the East Asia region and the global naval powers, a situation that promotes a new world competition between USA and China.

Rethinking the division of labor in IR: ‘critical’ and ‘problem-solving’ theories

Decades after their incorporation into the discipline, the argument that critical approaches are marginalized in the discipline of International Relations (IR) is increasingly becoming questionable. Thus, it is a good time to reflect on critical approaches’ evolution and achievements, as well as their ‘marginalized position in IR’ and relations with conventional approaches. For this aim, this paper focuses on realism(s) and critical theory(ies) while asking whether these two research traditions are conducting 'fair criticisms' to each other based on their own claims and whether their criticisms help develop IR theory's capacity in explaining and/or understanding world politics or undermine it. Accordingly, the paper first analyzes the realist school of thought in IR, going through the main arguments of classical realism, structural realism, and neo-classical realism. Second, it focuses on the development and main assumptions of critical theory (Marxist-inspired approaches, Frankfurt School and Neo-Gramscianism) mainly by focusing on Cox and Ashley's works and critical scholars' readings of them. Third, the paper discusses the main points of cleavages between the two approaches mainly based on the famous division of labor (criticizing vs solving problems), and their criticisms to each other while assessing the pearls and pitfalls of each. Following the discussion, the paper asks whether is there a way out of these dichotomies and whether it is possible to create a productive dialogue between 'problem-solving' and 'critical' schools of thought.

American Legal Realism and the Revitalization of Literary Realist History

American Legal Realism and the Revitalization of Literary Realist History

E. H. Carr: imperialism, war and lessons for post-colonial IR

In the Anglosphere, most undergraduate introductory courses for International Relations (IR) still begin with an overview of the canonical ‘forefathers’ of realism, and their ‘great debate’ with idealism. Students cannot escape the ‘classical’ realism, presented as a homogeneous tradition, and its famous realists: often a combination of Hans Morgenthau, Arnold Wolfers, Reinhold Niebuhr and E. H. Carr. Realism in IR, however, has never been homogeneous, and the reductionist stratification of IR theory into rigid factions is becoming increasingly contested. In recent years, new generations of IR scholars have led a growing introspection into the underlying assumptions of the field and its history, which has fostered critical approaches to IR's historical sociology. It is in this vein that Haro Karkour has undertaken a comprehensive reassessment of E. H. Carr's place within the discipline of IR. Aside from being a forefather of the classical realist canon, Carr was known for his histories of the Soviet Union and his lectures on historiographical methodology. What does Marxist historian Carr have in common with the realist school of thought that houses neo-realists like John Mearsheimer? According to Karkour's reassessment of Carr's legacy, the answer is more complex than IR scholars have been led to believe.

U.S. Space Policy and Theories of International Relations: The Case for Analytical Eclecticism

Space activities and infrastructure today are critical to international security and the global economy. The space domain is not, however, subject to sovereign control by international law. Like other shared domains, such as the high seas, the polar regions, and arguably cyberspace, space is a domain in which State and non-State actors interact beyond national borders. Given global dependence on space-derived information and an increase in potential adversary threats to space assets, States have taken a number of steps in recent years to protect their national interests in space. Despite its importance and increasing global attention, international cooperation and competition in space is a relatively under theorized topic in international relations. Conversely, international relations theories are not widely used in the development of United States (U.S.) national space policy and the practice of space diplomacy, from a U.S. perspective. The intent of this article is to address this rift between theory and policy by briefly describing major theories of international relations and where they can shed light on how and why States engage in cooperation and competition in space. The article addresses the major schools of realism, liberalism, and constructivism, with applications to space activity. No single theory fully describes the U.S. policy approach to international space activities. Different theories, applied to the same situation, can, however, provide useful perspectives to both theorists and policy-makers. This suggests the use of a mixed, pragmatic approach, referred to as “eclectic theorizing” in international relations literature, as a promising avenue for further research.

Leaders, States and war in Ukraine: back to the old school of realism?

Leaders, States and war in Ukraine: back to the old school of realism?

Između pejzaža i hiperobjekata - mapiranje viskoziteta borske flotacione jalovine

In contemporary architecture and related disciplines, the understanding of landscape is undergoing transformative changes due to ecological emergencies. Rather than perceiving landscape as a static form, it is regarded as an open process, suggesting its complete comprehension may be elusive. Consequently, alternative models that surpass traditional picturesque representations are emerging within the field of landscape representation. Furthermore, different theoretical frameworks are being employed to grasp the supposed geological epoch of the Anthropocene. Object-oriented ontology (OOO) is a framework that falls under the speculative realism school of thought. Within this theoretical lens, Timothy Morton introduces the concept of hyperobjects, referring to entities that transcend spatial and temporal boundaries and profoundly impact life on Earth. Hyperobjects manifest through diverse phenomena such as global warming, radioactive materials, nuclear waste, pollution, etc. They possess five defining characteristics: viscosity, nonlocality, time undulation, interobjectivity and phasing that may be further interpreted in the architectural discipline. Therefore, this paper aims to contribute to the ongoing discourse on hyperobjects and their essential characteristics while exploring their connections to various architectural landscape concepts. Moreover, it seeks to conduct a design-driven research experiment focused on an alternative viscosity representation in Bor, a flotation tailing in Eastern Serbia.

Nepalese and Indian Foreign Policy and International Relations

The relationship between and among the foreign political units of the world waite since the establishment of modern state system (1648 Westphalia treaty). With the development of science and technology (sophisticated arms, means of transportation and communication) international relation has been highly complex. Likewise, modernism also has dragged international relation towards vagueness. International relations is a phenomena emerged with the creation of nation states. The development of nation states itself was a logical corollary to the growth of capitalism. Capitalism created larger territories which was basically due to expanding markets. Capitalism not only to the emergence of Nation-state but to colonialism as well. Therefore, international relations, till the end of world war II, was not between sovereign equal nations but most often between colonial power which were European and their colonies. To study international relations, colonization and decolonization theory, idealist school, realist school, liberalist school and geopolitical theory etc. are commonly used. While talking about foreign policy of Nepal and India, we find similarities i.e. NAM, panchasheela, respect to international law/organization etc, but Indian foreign policy practice towards Nepal is quite different than its theories.

Сущность и причины войн в социал-демократической мысли XX−XXI веков

This article deals with the problem of war and peace in the works of representatives of the social democratic thought of the 20th and 21st centuries. The focus is on the works of Marxists (K. Kautsky, A. Bebel, R. Luxemburg, F. Mehring, G.V. Plekhanov) and neo-Marxist I. Wallerstein, as well as their opponents: realists (C. von Clausewitz, R. Aron, and others) and supporter of liberal idealism W. Wilson, as well as on some studies of contemporary authors. Much attention is paid to defining the essence of wars, their causes, ways to achieve peace, and ideas about the ideal world order. Further, the evolution of social democratic theory on the issue of war and peace in the 20th century is traced. The views of Marxist theorists are compared with those of representatives of other areas of the science of international relations. It is concluded that socialist theory, which is based on the understanding of the essence of war laid down in the works of the founders of Marxism and has much in common with the realist school, has evolved towards liberalism in matters of peace and post-war world order. At the same time, it made a significant contribution to the theory of international relations and not only became the basis for neo-Marxism, but also enriched political realism and liberalism as well as modern science in general with some conclusions. Works of researchers of the 21st century develop and summarize the most important conclusions on war and peace made by representatives of Marxism and other schools of the theory of international relations, which indicates the aspiration of the world scientific community to solve this global problem through joint efforts.

Erroneous Conduct of Foreign Policy: A Realism Analysis of US Involvement in the Vietnam War

The Vietnam War is known to be one of the longest wars the US has been involved in. Many may have associated the war as just another one of the many proxy wars the US was involved in during the Cold War. However, there is more to learn from the Vietnam War as the recent conflicts the US was involved in, like that in Afghanistan, bore a resemblance to that of the Vietnam War. Hence, to understand the current state of the US, it is important to take a thorough look into the Vietnam War. The article aims to provide explanations to the driving force behind US involvement, its flawed approaches and perception towards its conduct in Vietnam along with the state of realism after the end of the Vietnam War. The article utilizes the qualitative research method along with the realism school of thought to answer the research questions. The result shows that the national interest on power accumulation and national security considerations were the driving force behind the US involvement. Moreover, on the issue of US approaches throughout the war, the reliance on realist values can be attributed as one of the factors that led to the US failure in Vietnam. In regard to realism's fate following the end of the war, it can be seen that the current and foreign policies made after the Vietnam War are still imbued with it.