Reaction Time-based Concealed Information Test Research Articles

Taylor Swift does not boost face recognition in reaction time-based Concealed Information Test: investigating target-familiarity effects.

Eyewitness identifications from lineups are prone to error. More indirect identification procedures, such as the reaction-time based Concealed Information Test (RT-CIT) could be a viable alternative to lineups. The RT-CIT uses response times to assess facial familiarity. Theory and initial evidence with autobiographical stimuli suggests that the accuracy of RT-CIT can be augmented when participants' reliance on familiarity-based responding increases. We tested this assumption in two pre-registered experiments with 173 participants. Participants witnessed a mock crime. In the subsequent RT-CIT protocol, participants reacted to probe faces from the mock crime video, to irrelevant faces, and to target faces that required a unique response. Targets were either unknown people or were well-known celebrities (e.g., Taylor Swift). As expected, reaction times were longer to probes than to irrelevants in all conditions, indicating a CIT effect. Contrasting our pre-registered predictions, the CIT effect was not larger in the familiar condition (Experiment 1: unfamiliar targets: d = 0.77 vs. celebrity targets: d = 0.24; Experiment 2: unfamiliar targets: d = 1.09 vs. celebrity targets: d = 0.79). This suggests that familiar targets did not increase the validity of the RT-CIT in diagnosing concealed face recognition. A potential lack of saliency of the familiar targets might explain these unexpected findings. Of note, we did find medium to large effect sizes overall, speaking to the potential of diagnosing face recognition with the RT-CIT.

Guilty on the Go: Uncovering Concealed Information by Assessing Response Preparation Processes in a Go-Nogo-Paradigm

The Reaction Time-Based Concealed Information Test (RT-CIT) was designed to detect familiarity with crime-related information. However, RT-CIT results can be manipulated by preparing innocent-looking responses for these probes. We developed a new paradigm allowing us to assess such response preparation processes. In each trial of the task, a crime-related prime question was presented, followed by a test item which was either a publicly known item, an irrelevant item, or a probe. The test item could either match the question in terms of content or not, and a key had to be pressed if the answer was not publicly known (Go-Nogo task). In two experiments (total N = 138), we found evidence for both familiarity (slower reactions toward crime-related than unrelated information) and response preparation effects (less errors for probes matching the prime question) in guilty participants, indicating that the new paradigm can help to overcome problems of strategic response preparation.

Diagnosing eyewitness identifications with reaction time-based concealed information test: the effect of observation time

Eyewitness identification procedures rely heavily on explicit identification from lineups. Lineups have been criticized because they have a considerable error rate. We tested the potential of implicit identifications in a Concealed Information Test (CIT) as an alternative. Previous experiments have suggested that implicit identification procedures might be suited when viewing conditions were favorable. In two experiments, mock eyewitnesses (Ns = 94, 509) witnessed a videotaped mock theft with longer or shorter observation time. We derived eyewitness identifications either implicitly from CIT reaction times or explicitly from simultaneous photo lineups. In Experiment 2, we also manipulated perpetrator presence. In both experiments, the perpetrator-present CIT showed capacity to diagnose face recognition, with large effect sizes (dE1 = 0.85 [0.51; 1.18]; dE2 = 0.74 [0.52; 0.96]), as expected. Unexpectedly, no moderation by observation time was found. In line with our hypothesis, no CIT effect emerged in the perpetrator-absent condition, indicating the absence of recognition (dE2 = 0.02 [− 0.17; 0.20]). We found no compelling evidence that one method would outperform the other. This work adds to accumulating evidence that suggests that, under favorable viewing conditions and replication provided, the RT-CIT might be diagnostic of facial recognition, for example when witnesses are hesitant of making an explicit identification. Future work might investigate conditions that affect performance in one, but not the other identification method.

How Vulnerable is the Reaction Time Concealed Information Test to Faking?

The reaction time-based Concealed Information Test (RT-CIT) can be used to detect information a suspect wishes to conceal. While it is often argued that it is easily faked, empirical research on its vulnerability to faking is scarce. In three experiments, we tested whether receiving faking instructions enables guilty participants to fake an innocent test outcome in an RT-CIT. In Experiment 1, when not using a response deadline, we found the RT-CIT to be vulnerable to faking ( d = 1.06). Experiment 2 showed that when using a response deadline, faking was ineffective ( d = −0.25). Critically, Experiment 3 replicated these findings within one between-subject design, showing again a faking effect when no response deadline was used ( d = 1.08) that vanished with the use of a response deadline ( d = −0.56). By providing suggestions for the development of a faking detection algorithm, we hope to stimulate further research in this area.

Familiarity-related filler items enhance the RT CIT, but not the P300 CIT: Episodic vs. Semantic memory protocols

The reaction time-based concealed information test (RT CIT) typically uses three types of stimuli: 1) probe (i.e., crime-related item), 2) irrelevant (i.e., crime-unrelated item) and 3) target (i.e., an irrelevant item assigned a unique response so as to ensure attention to the test). Lukács, et al., (2017) introduced familiarity-related filler items to the RT CIT, enhancing the efficacy of the test for both single and multiple probe (per block) protocols. Our study aims to A) replicate the effects of familiarity-related filler items on the RT CIT, B) use P300 to investigate the mechanisms of the fillers-related enhancement effect on the RT CIT, C) investigate whether these fillers can enhance the efficacy of the typical P300-based CIT, and D) explore the effects of fillers on the semantic and episodic versions of the P300 and RT CITs. We replicated a clear fillers-related enhancement of the RT CIT (N = 38 for Fillers, N = 37 for No Fillers). Semantic and Episodic experiments were enhanced equally-well by filler items. No effect of fillers was observed on P300 amplitude for CIT stimuli, however, an interaction involving P300 latency suggests that fillers facilitated the processing of Semantic information over Episodic information. Our study independently replicates a valuable improvement of the traditional RT CIT, investigates the potential mechanisms of this enhancement effect, and demonstrates important differences between the P300 and RT CITs.

Variation of picture angles and its effect on the Concealed Information Test

BackgroundThe reaction time-based Concealed Information Test (RT-CIT) is a memory paradigm used to detect crime-related knowledge. However, this would also imply that the RT-CIT would be vulnerable to factors that are known to compromise object recognition or memory integrity. From this perspective, one key issue is whether “guilty” memory can be detected if the crime-related images are photographed at different angles from what the perpetrator saw, which is almost always the case in the field. To investigate this, here we manipulated the deviation angles, from 0° to 330° in 11 steps, between the study and test phases to assess how the RT-CIT holds up against angular rotations.ResultsWe observed a robust RT-CIT effect at all deviation angles for both deep-encoders (Experiment 1) and shallow-encoders (Experiment 2). The RT-CIT was effective within the first 250 or so trials for both encoding groups, with smaller probe-irrelevant differences beyond that.ConclusionsWith appropriate encoding and memory strength, RT-CIT images do not necessarily have to match the exact angle of the perpetrator’s perspective at the time of the crime. Unnatural angles such as 90° and 270° or unconventional rotational axes may require caution. Trial number under 250 trials show maximal Probe-Irrelevant difference, but more trials may add power to improve detection accuracy.

What are you hiding? Initial validation of the reaction time‐based searching concealed information test

SummaryThe reaction time‐based concealed information test (RT‐CIT) has been used to judge the veracity of an examinees claim to be naïve by using RTs to test for recognition of relevant details. Here, we explore the validity of the RT‐CIT to generate new knowledge about the incident—the searching CIT. In a mock terrorism study (n = 60) the RT‐CIT not only allowed to link suspects to known crime details, but also allowed to reveal new crime details well above chance. A simulation study confirms the potential of the searching RT‐CIT and identifies conditions under which it performs best. We used an archival dataset that met these conditions (high CIT effect, large number of item repetitions), and found better item classification performance than in the mock terrorism study. The searching RT‐CIT could be a new, promising investigative tool to reveal new (e.g., crime) details to the investigative party.

Validity of the Reaction Time Concealed Information Test in a Prison Sample.

Detecting whether a suspect possesses incriminating (e.g., crime-related) information can provide valuable decision aids in court. To this means, the Concealed Information Test (CIT) has been developed and is currently applied on a regular basis in Japan. But whereas research has revealed a high validity of the CIT in student and normal populations, research investigating its validity in forensic samples in scarce. This applies even more to the reaction time-based CIT (RT-CIT), where no such research is available so far. The current study tested the application of the RT-CIT for an imaginary mock crime scenario both in a sample of prisoners (n = 27) and a matched control group (n = 25). Results revealed a high validity of the RT-CIT for discriminating between crime-related and crime-unrelated information, visible in medium to very high effect sizes for error rates and reaction times. Interestingly, in accordance with theories that criminal offenders may have worse response inhibition capacities and that response inhibition plays a crucial role in the RT-CIT, CIT-effects in the error rates were even elevated in the prisoners compared to the control group. No support for this hypothesis could, however, be found in reaction time CIT-effects. Also, performance in a standard Stroop task, that was conducted to measure executive functioning, did not differ between both groups and no correlation was found between Stroop task performance and performance in the RT-CIT. Despite frequently raised concerns that the RT-CIT may not be applicable in non-student and forensic populations, our results thereby do suggest that such a use may be possible and that effects seem to be quite large. Future research should build up on these findings by increasing the realism of the crime and interrogation situation and by further investigating the replicability and the theoretical substantiation of increased effects in non-student and forensic samples.

Reaction time-based Concealed Information Test in eyewitness identification is moderated by picture similarity but not eyewitness cooperation

The reaction time-based Concealed Information Test (RT-CIT) has high validity in assessing recognition of critical information. Findings on its usefulness for diagnosing face recognition in eyewitnesses are inconsistent. Experiment 1 (N = 82) tested whether closely matching the faces of the probes and irrelevants, as required for a fair lineup, undermines RT-CIT usefulness. Preregistered Experiments 2a and 2b (Ns = 48), tested the role of eyewitness cooperativeness for RT-CIT validity. All participants watched a mock crime video and then completed an RT-CIT. As expected, the usefulness of the RT-CIT was moderated by picture similarity, with better detection for non-matched faces. Unexpectedly, eyewitness cooperation (conceal vs. reveal recognition), did not affect the validity of the RT-CIT. A large CIT effect observed in Experiment 2b further suggested that—even with matched faces—the RT-CIT might be of use when encoding conditions during the crime were favorable. Cases in which witnesses are unwilling or afraid to make an explicit identification might concern another possible application.

Testing a potential alternative to traditional identification procedures: Reaction time-based concealed information test does not work for lineups with cooperative witnesses

Direct eyewitness identification is widely used, but prone to error. We tested the validity of indirect eyewitness identification decisions using the reaction time-based concealed information test (CIT) for assessing cooperative eyewitnesses’ face memory as an alternative to traditional lineup procedures. In a series of five experiments, a total of 401 mock eyewitnesses watched one of 11 different stimulus events that depicted a breach of law. Eyewitness identifications in the CIT were derived from longer reaction times as compared to well-matched foil faces not encountered before. Across the five experiments, the weighted mean effect size d was 0.14 (95% CI 0.08–0.19). The reaction time-based CIT seems unsuited for testing cooperative eyewitnesses’ memory for faces. The careful matching of the faces required for a fair lineup or the lack of intent to deceive may have hampered the diagnosticity of the reaction time-based CIT.

The role of motivation to avoid detection in reaction time-based concealed information detection

Do motivated liars lie more successfully? The motivational effort hypothesis predicts that higher motivation effectively diminishes the chance of being detected, whereas the motivational impairment hypothesis predicts that the higher the motivation to go undetected, the greater the chance of being detected. We manipulated motivation in two online reaction time-based Concealed Information Test studies in which participants tried to hide their identity. Detection of concealed identity information in Experiment 1 (n=259) was successful and a small financial incentive to avoid detection did not impact upon validity. Despite a greater financial incentive and a manipulation check showing that motivation was increased, Experiment 2 (n=233) did not impact upon the test's validity either. A financial incentive to avoid detection did not decrease the validity of concealed information detection.

Can you keep a secret? Introducing the RT-based Concealed Information Test to children

ABSTRACTThe present study validates a novel version of the Reaction time-based Concealed Information Test (RT-CIT) adapted for young children (7–10 years). Their ability to deny the possession of relevant information was related to individual differences in intelligence, processing speed, executive functioning and affective problems. The comparison between the knowledgeable group of children (N = 84) who took part in a mock surprise scenario and the unknowledgeable group (N = 78) indicated that by early school-age the RT-CIT can be considered a relatively reliable diagnostic tool for detecting concealed information. We found evidence indicating that executive functions are predictors of children's proficiency in concealing information; however, the specific interrelations were complex (children with lower inhibition and spatial working memory, but with better shifting performance were easier to detect as possessing concealed information). Finally, we found limited evidence for a substantial association between parent-reported emotional problems and children's proficiency in concealing information. This investigation has practical implications for the development of rigorous protocols to detect children's concealed knowledge within legal environments.

ID-Check: Online Concealed Information Test Reveals True Identity.

The Internet has already changed people's lives considerably and is likely to drastically change forensic research. We developed a web-based test to reveal concealed autobiographical information. Initial studies identified a number of conditions that affect diagnostic efficiency. By combining these moderators, this study investigated the full potential of the online ID-check. Participants (n = 101) tried to hide their identity and claimed a false identity in a reaction time-based Concealed Information Test. Half of the participants were presented with personal details (e.g., first name, last name, birthday), whereas the others only saw irrelevant details. Results showed that participants' true identity could be detected with high accuracy (AUC = 0.98; overall accuracy: 86-94%). Online memory detection can reliably and validly detect whether someone is hiding their true identity. This suggests that online memory detection might become a valuable tool for forensic applications.

The "good cop, bad cop" effect in the RT-based concealed information test: exploring the effect of emotional expressions displayed by a virtual investigator.

Concealing the possession of relevant information represents a complex cognitive process, shaped by contextual demands and individual differences in cognitive and socio-emotional functioning. The Reaction Time-based Concealed Information Test (RT-CIT) is used to detect concealed knowledge based on the difference in RTs between denying recognition of critical (probes) and newly encountered (irrelevant) information. Several research questions were addressed in this scenario implemented after a mock crime. First, we were interested whether the introduction of a social stimulus (facial identity) simulating a virtual investigator would facilitate the process of deception detection. Next, we explored whether his emotional displays (friendly, hostile or neutral) would have a differential impact on speed of responses to probe versus irrelevant items. We also compared the impact of introducing similar stimuli in a working memory (WM) updating context without requirements to conceal information. Finally, we explored the association between deceptive behavior and individual differences in WM updating proficiency or in internalizing problems (state / trait anxiety and depression). Results indicated that the mere presence of a neutral virtual investigator slowed down participants' responses, but not the appended lie-specific time (difference between probes and irrelevants). Emotional expression was shown to differentially affect speed of responses to critical items, with positive displays from the virtual examiner enhancing lie-specific time, compared to negative facial expressions, which had an opposite impact. This valence-specific effect was not visible in the WM updating context. Higher levels of trait / state anxiety were related to faster responses to probes in the negative condition (hostile facial expression) of the RT-CIT. These preliminary findings further emphasize the need to take into account motivational and emotional factors when considering the transfer of deception detection techniques from the laboratory to real-life settings.

The RT-based Concealed Information Test: An Overview of Current Research and Future Perspectives

Research interest in deception detection has significantly increased during the past decades. The current overview discusses the validity of specific behavioral measures that can detect concealed information. Thus we reviewed the main theoretical assumptions behind a novel method labeled as Reaction Time-based Concealed Information Test (RT-based CIT) and we presented an overview of the current research in the field. Although the RT-based CIT is a promising method for lie detection, the focus of this article is on its potential value in understanding the cognition of deception. Given the robust theoretical background of the RT-based CIT, we argue for the value of this line of research in uncovering the underlying cognitive mechanisms involved in deceptive behavior.