Raw Materials For Biofuels Research Articles

Impact of seeding terms and row spacing on yield of switchgrass phytomass, biofuel and energy output

Abstract The article substantiates the necessity of biofuel usage from plant raw materials in order to reduce consumption of non-renewable energy sources. It has been determined that, along with other energy crops, switchgrass ( Panicum virgatum L.) is a plant that is not demanding to cultivation conditions, capable of forming strong stems which can be used for solid biofuel production. It has been established that study of elements of switchgrass cultivation technology is very important because yield of the crop, variety properties and weather conditions considerably depend on land treatment. Methods of the experiment are generally accepted and supplemented by field and laboratory studies on the basis of scientific and practical recommendations of the scientists. The research results are original, due to the fact that for the first time in Ukraine comprehensive experiments were done and yield of dry vegetative above-ground mass (phytomass) of perennial vegetation cycle switchgrass has been defined. The level of biomass productivity as a raw material for biofuel has been specified depending on the seeding terms, row spacing and taking into account consumption of productive moisture. Phytomass energy potential has been calculated and yield of biofuel and energy from plant switchgrass raw material has been defined on variants of the experiment. Conclusions. The optimal switchgrass seeding term for the conditions of Ukraine has been established. This term is the first decade of April (prevernal). Experimentally proved that switchgrass with a width between rows of 45 cm forms the highest yield of above-ground vegetative mass (wet and dry) with minimum water consumption and forms maximum yield of energy-intensive biofuel. Variety Cave-in-roch provides the highest and stable phytomass yield, output of biofuel and energy per one hectare in comparison with variety Sanburst.

BIODIESEL FROM MICROALGAE: METHODS INDUCTION OF LIPIDS AND SCREENING PROMISING STRAINS

The work is devoted to the presentation and analysis of methodological approaches to finding new and innovative sources of renewable non-food raw materials for biofuels of third generation based on biomass of microalgae. The problem and methods of inducing lipid (lipid increase) in microalgae (MAL) were reviewed. The results of current researches in the field of obtaining promising strains MAL ( producers of lipids ) were demonstrated. In particular, we have discussed the task of finding a stressors for the two-stage culturing of microalgae, when the first stage of the cultivation of microalgae is conducted in the most optimal conditions for the maximum amount of biomass, and in a second step the biosynthesis and accumulation of lipid in the resulting biomass occurs as a result of creating the conditions of physiological stress. The results of the own experimental work on the isolation from natural sources of new candidate strains and on the selection of stressors for lipid induction have been showing and analyzed. We also considered the feasibility of the method of screening lipid microalgae by means fluorescent dye Nile red, which has been tested on a wide range of isolated cultures of microalgae from different taxa. As stressors for inducing lipid the nitrogen and phosphorus starvation, high and low irradiation , temperature regimes have been used. Significant increases of lipid content in the cells under the influence of stressors microalgae have been shown. The prospect of using the technological fast growing mi-croalga Arthrospira platensis as a model to find the stressors has been confirmed. Dedicated crops from natural sources are described in detail and included in the collection of microalgae for energy purposes Laboratory of RES geographical faculty of Lomonosov Moscow State University.

Forecasting China’s Annual Biofuel Production Using an Improved Grey Model

Biofuel production in China suffers from many uncertainties due to concerns about the government’s support policy and supply of biofuel raw material. Predicting biofuel production is critical to the development of this energy industry. Depending on the biofuel’s characteristics, we improve the prediction precision of the conventional prediction method by creating a dynamic fuzzy grey–Markov prediction model. Our model divides random time series decomposition into a change trend sequence and a fluctuation sequence. It comprises two improvements. We overcome the problem of considering the status of future time from a static angle in the traditional grey model by using the grey equal dimension new information and equal dimension increasing models to create a dynamic grey prediction model. To resolve the influence of random fluctuation data and weak anti-interference ability in the Markov chain model, we improve the traditional grey–Markov model with classification of states using the fuzzy set theory. Finally, we use real data to test the dynamic fuzzy prediction model. The results prove that the model can effectively improve the accuracy of forecast data and can be applied to predict biofuel production. However, there are still some defects in our model. The modeling approach used here predicts biofuel production levels based upon past production levels dictated by economics, governmental policies, and technological developments but none of which can be forecast accurately based upon past events.

ULTRASONICATED JATROPHA CURCAS SEED RESIDUAL AS POTENTIAL BIOFUEL FEEDSTOCK

This study focuses on the prospect of Jatropha Curcas seed residual from the ultrasonic in-situ process which is used as a biofuel raw material especially for producing bioethanol. Reactive extraction process coupled with ultrasonic system were used for simultaneous oil extraction and transesterification of Jatropha Curcas seed. Using ethanol as the solvent, alkaline catalyst (sodium hydroxide) and with the aid of ultrasonic device, about 50% oil from the initial seeds was extracted, which is equivalent to Soxhlet extraction performance. The seeds were being chemically and physically characterized with ultimate analyses, with SEM and XRD as potential bioethanol raw material. SEM and XRD profile exhibited loosen compounds in the ultrasonicated residues and provided a better accessible and easier degradable fiber for assisting bioethanol production process compared to the initial seeds. The positive effects of the ultrasonic reactive extraction for Jatropha Curcas seed pre-treatment is beneficial towards bioethanol production and could further be used as a solvent in the latter process.

Bio-Ethanol Yield from Selected Lignocellulosic Wastes

Developing nations are experiencing energy deficit because of overdependence on fossil-based fuels. Countries such as Nigeria have abundant raw materials for biofuels, yet these have not been explored. This study was designed to evaluate the bioethanol production potentials of lignocellulosic-based wastes. The mean glucose yield and TRS obtained from the 13.1M H2SO4 were significantly higher than those of 9.4M and 5.6M H2SO4 hydrolysis. The mean glucose yield and TRS obtained from the 13.1M H2SO4 hydrolysis were: CP (85.1±5.7, 209.8±3.7mg/kg), YP (269.2±11.2, 541.3±7.8 mg/kg), PP (304.0±6.1, 461.2±3.6 mg/kg) and SD (343.2±4.8, 535.9±5.0 mg/kg). The 13.1M hydrolysate was used for the ethanol production and the maximum production was obtained at 48hours of fermentation, the mean ethanol yield being: CP - 160.0±15.1 mL/kg, YP -211.7±15.3 mL/kg, PP - 265.0±20.5 mL/kg and SD - 280.0±11.5 mL/kg. A linear relationship exists between the ethanol yield and fermentation time (R2 = 0.711). Sawdust produced the highest glucose and ethanol yield among the substrates; hence ethanol production from sawdust should be explored and optimized.

Fuelling Cassava Development to Meet the Greater Demand for Food and Bio-fuel in Indonesia

Abstract Cassava ( Manihot esculenta Crantz) is the most essential source of carbohydrate. As a source of carbohydrate, cassava is used for food, feed industries as well as potential to be utilized as raw material for bio-fuel. To anticipate the greater demand for food, feed and renewable fuel expanding harvest area as well as by implementing new innovation in the form of introducing high yielding varieties with inorganic and organic fertilizers to improve soil fertility is strongly recommended.

Salinity Effects on Development and Productivity of Crambe (<i>Crambe abyssinica</i>) under Greenhouse Conditions

Salinity in soil or water in arid and semi arid regions can severely limit crop production, since the high amount of NaCl contributes to specific ion effects of Cl-, Na+ or both, and to antagonistic effects on nutrient elements. Affected by salt stress, most of the cultivated plants do not fully express their growth potential, which lowers their economic value. Crambe (Crambe abyssinica) is an oil plant of the cruciferous family and it is believed that crambe has great potential to figure as raw material for biofuel; however, literature is not abundant about the effects of salinity in crambe production. This work was carried out in order to evaluate the effects on the development and productivity of crambe irrigated with saline waters under greenhouse conditions. Treatments resulted from the combination of two factors: salinity of irrigation water (ECw) in five levels (1.03-control, 2.5, 4.0, 5.5, and 7.0 dS·m-1) and two types of salts (NaCl and NaCl + CaCl2) with three replications, totaling 30 experimental plots. At the end of the experimental period, soil samples from each plot were collected for chemical and salinity of soil saturation extract analyzes. Salt types did not affect plant parameters. However, the salinity levels presented significant effects on the all plant parameters, decreasing their values with the increase of the salt dose. Salinity levels of the solutions used for irrigation in this study affected the growth of plants and grain yield of crambe. Regarding the type of salts, a higher concentration of Na was observed for NaCl solutions at 2.5, 4.0 and 5.5 dS·m-1 salinity levels.

Microbial lipid production: screening with yeasts grown on Brazilian molasses

Rhodotorula glutinis CCT 2182, Rhodosporidium toruloides CCT 0783, Rhodotorula minuta CCT 1751 and Lipomyces starkeyi DSM 70296 were evaluated for the conversion of sugars from Brazilian molasses into single-cell oil (SCO) feedstock for biodiesel. Pulsed fed-batch fermentations were performed in 1.65 l working volume bioreactors. The maximum specific growth rate (µmax), lipid productivity (Pr) and cellular lipid content were, respectively, 0.23 h(-1), 0.41 g l(-1) h(-1), and 41% for Rsp. toruloides; 0.20 h(-1), 0.27 g l(-1) h(-1), and 36% for Rta. glutinis; 0.115 h(-1), 0.135 g l(-1) h(-1), and 27 % for Rta. minuta; and 0.11 h(-1), 0.13 g l(-1) h(-1), and 32% for L. starkeyi. Based on their microbial lipid productivity, content, and profile, Rsp. toruloides and Rta. glutinis are promising candidates for biodiesel production from Brazilian molasses. All the oils from the yeasts were similar to the composition of plant oils (rapeseed and soybean) and could be used as raw material for biofuels, as well as in food and nutraceutical products.

Mapping straw yield using on-combine light detection and ranging (lidar)

Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) straw is not only important for long-term soil productivity, but also as a raw material for biofuel, livestock feed, building, packing, and bedding. Inventory figures in the USA for potential straw availability are largely based on whole states and counties. Site-specific information is needed to determine where sufficient straw is available for removal within farm fields. The objective of this study was to assess the accuracy and feasibility of light detection and ranging (lidar) measurements of crop height for predicting the straw yield of wheat at site-specific field locations and apply this information to determining where excess straw is available beyond soil conservation needs. An inexpensive lidar sensor was mounted on the top of a Case International Harvester 1470 combine and aimed to point forwards at a 45° angle over the combine's reel. Lidar-measured crop height was correlated with manually measured crop height in small plots (r 2 = 0.79) and was a good predictor of straw productivity across three farm fields (r 2 = 0.85). Crop height was better correlated with straw yield than grain yield or grain protein concentration. Crop height predicted by lidar could then be used to estimate straw yield from a predetermined linear relationship between crop height and straw yield. A straw yield map was generated during harvest by programming the lidar sensor to compute the average of 91 readings in each scan. A map of harvestable straw was computed by subtracting the amount of straw required to maintain soil organic carbon from a map of total straw yield. Lidar is potentially useful for measuring crop biomass on a combine harvester and determining where in farm fields excess crop residue can be removed for commercial purposes. Further work with lidar is needed to resolve the issue of flying chaff.

Current limits of life cycle assessment framework in evaluating environmental sustainability – case of two evolving biofuel technologies

Abstract The growing need to use biofuel raw materials that do not compete with food and feed have resulted in a growing interest in lignocellulosic materials and microalgae. However, the life cycle environmental benefits of both biofuels have been questioned. The aim of this study was to evaluate how environmental sustainability of forest-based and microalgae biodiesel can be estimated by using the life cycle assessment framework. These biofuel chains were chosen because they are contrasting systems, as the first one is based on a “natural” feedstock production system, while the second one is an entirely anthropogenic system using an artificial infrastructure and external inputs to grow microalgae. This study focuses on life cycle impact categories still under methodological development, namely resource depletion, land use and land use change, water use, soil quality impacts and biodiversity. In addition, climate impacts were quantified in order to exemplify the uncertainty of the results and the complexity of estimating the parameters. This study demonstrates the difficulty to assess the absolute range of the total environmental impacts of the two systems. The results propose that the greenhouse gas emissions of microalgae biodiesel are higher than those of forest residue-based biodiesel, but the results of the microalgae chain are very uncertain due to the early development stage of the technology, and due to assumptions made concerning the electricity mix. On the other hand, the microalgae system has other advantages such as low competition on productive land and low biodiversity impacts. The findings help to recognise the main characteristics of the two production chains, and the main remaining research issues on bioenergy assessment along with the methodological development needs of life cycle approaches.

Development and characterization of EST-SSR markers from Jatropha curcas EST database and their transferability across jatropha-related species/genus

Jatropha curcas (jatropha) is a multipurpose plant with potential as a raw material for biofuel. In the present study, a total of 43,349 expressed sequence tags (ESTs) from J. curcas were searched for type and frequency of simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers. Five thousand one hundred and seventy-five sequences were indentified to contain 6,108 SSRs with 90.8% simple and 9.2% compound repeat motifs. One hundred and sixty-three EST-SSRs were developed and used to evaluate the transferability and genetic relatedness among 4 accessions of J. curcas from China, Mexico, Thailand and Vietnam; 5 accessions of congeneric species, viz. J. gossypiifolia, dwarf J. integerrima, normal J. integerrima, J. multifida, J. podagrica; and Ricinus communis. The polymorphic markers showed 75.56–85.19% transferability among four species of Jatropha and 26.67% transferability across genera in Ricinus communis. Investigation of genetic relatedness showed that J. curcas and J. integerrima are closely related. EST-SSRs used in this study demonstrate a high efficiency of cross species/genera amplification and are useful for identifying genetic diversity of jatropha and its close taxa and to choose the desired related species for wide crossing to improve new varieties of jatropha. The markers can also be further exploited for genetic resource management and genetic improvement of related species/genera through marker-assisted breeding programs.

EU sustainability criteria for biofuels: uncertainties in GHG emissions from cultivation

Background: Cultivation of raw material represents a large proportion of biofuels´ GHG emissions. The EU renewable energy directive 2009/28/EC specifies a GHG emission default value for cultivation of biofuel raw material (23 g CO2-e/MJ ethanol for wheat). The aim of this study was to quantify the uncertainty in GHG emissions for wheat cultivation in Sweden, considering uncertainty and variability in data at farm level. Results: Two levels of data collection at farm level were analyzed; simple (only yield and amount of N) and advanced (also including amounts and types of energy). The 2.5–97.5 percentile uncertainty for Swedish winter wheat was 20–27 g CO2-e/MJ, which can be considered large in the context of the Directive’s threshold of 23 g (to two significant figures). Conclusion: It is concluded that quantifying GHG emissions in order to regulate biofuels is a difficult task, especially emissions from cultivation, since these are biological systems with large variability.

Ash Characterization and Transformation Behavior of the Fixed-Bed Combustion of Novel Crops: Poplar, Brassica, and Cassava Fuels

New biofuel raw materials for energy pellet production are now being studied as potential energy sources for the heating market. Because of the complexity of the chemical and physical properties of novel fuels, such as some agricultural residues and energy crops, the study of their ash-related aspects is crucial for the sustainable development of this potential energy sector. Ash fractions formed during fixed-bed combustion of different pelletized novel crops; i.e., two Mediterranean crops (one herbaceous, brassica, and one woody species, poplar) and three Chinese cassava stems (cassava species from three different Chinese regions), and three Chinese cassava stems (cassava species from three different Chinese regions), were characterized, and their formation paths assessed in this study. Special emphasis was placed on elucidating the role of major ash-forming elements in the fractionation and transformation behavior, leading to the formation of bottom ash, deposits, and particulate emissions (fine and coarse ash particle fractions) on the basis of experimental data. In the Mediterranean fuels, the predominant ash fraction obtained was bottom ash, mainly characterized by silicates. Phosphates were found to be the main crystalline phases in the Chinese fuels. The slagging tendency was low for all of the fuels, although more significant for the cassava species under the studied conditions. Further, combustion of the studied Chinese energy crops resulted in a considerably finer particle fraction compared to the Mediterranean fuels. Deposits and particulate matter were dominated by K-sulfates as well as K-chloride in all fuels (except poplar), with the occurrence of K-phosphates for cassava pellets. Overall, this study showed fundamental differences in ash transformation behavior during combustion of P-rich fuels (i.e., cassava mixtures) compared to Si-rich fuels (i.e., poplar and brassica mixtures). Of major importance is the experimental verification of the higher thermodynamic stability of phosphates in relation to silicates. Furthermore, in P-rich fuels at high (K + Na)/(Ca + Mg) ratios, a significant degree of alkali metal volatilization occurs, which forms larger amounts of particulate matter, whereas this ratio has no/low effect in Si-rich fuels at high alkali metal ratios.

An Engineered Microbial Platform for Direct Biofuel Production from Brown Macroalgae

Prospecting macroalgae (seaweeds) as feedstocks for bioconversion into biofuels and commodity chemical compounds is limited primarily by the availability of tractable microorganisms that can metabolize alginate polysaccharides. Here, we present the discovery of a 36-kilo-base pair DNA fragment from Vibrio splendidus encoding enzymes for alginate transport and metabolism. The genomic integration of this ensemble, together with an engineered system for extracellular alginate depolymerization, generated a microbial platform that can simultaneously degrade, uptake, and metabolize alginate. When further engineered for ethanol synthesis, this platform enables bioethanol production directly from macroalgae via a consolidated process, achieving a titer of 4.7% volume/volume and a yield of 0.281 weight ethanol/weight dry macroalgae (equivalent to ~80% of the maximum theoretical yield from the sugar composition in macroalgae).

Marine biological resources: An advanced raw material base for biofuel

This work discusses the problems of nontraditional raw materials for biofuel, provides an analysis of studies on the synthesis of biodiesel in various lipids, and discusses the production of lipid material and the contribution from different sources to the overall resource balance. Key questions and problems of lipase catalysis, the sources and range of commercial preparations of lipases and biocatalysis are discussed in detail. Using of algal feedstock for the production of ethanol fuel is considered.

Impact of Expanding Bio-fuel Consumption on Reduction of CO2 Emissions in Thailand:

In this paper, we verify the impacts that expanded bio-fuel consumption may have on reduction of CO2 emissions from automobiles in the household sector. We believe increasing production volume by popularizing bio-fuels may help increase the household income of farmers that produce raw materials for bio-fuels and increase the total household Equivalent Variations (EV) .First, considering the tax privileges provided for E10 (10% ethanol blended) and B5 (5% bio-diesel blended) , the indirect tax rate for bio-fuel decreased by 85.34% when subsidies were deducted from the taxable income. Based on these estimations, we performed a simulation to detect the effectiveness of a campaign popularizing bio-fuel usage alone by utilizing the Computable General Equilibrium (CGE) model to reproduce the actual situation of bio-fuel popularization in 2007. As a result, the rate of change in CO2 emissions from automobiles decreased 0.266% and the total household EV gained 1.14 billion baht due to increased farmer and non-farmer household benefits in areas other than the Greater Bangkok Metropolitan. In addition, simulations in which the indirect tax rate for bio-fuel gradually decreased from the level in 2007 showed that the consumption of bio-fuels has been rising and the reduction of CO2 emissions has been expanding to increase the total household EV.Second, when blended fuels such as E10 and B5 are fully used by the household sector it is even more important for the Thai government to provide subsidies to the bio-fuel industry and industries supplying bio-fuel materials for promoting bio-fuel usage policies and sustained economic development. To secure financial resources to achieve this purpose, the government should raise indirect taxes for the services industries. At the same time, the government should also take measures to decrease the direct tax rate for households. In our simulation based on this scenario, it was possible to reach a decrease of 0.685% in the reduction of CO2 emissions by substituting bio-fuels for fossil fuels even though fuel consumption expanded with an increase in the income of farmer households. As spillover effects on activities in the production sector, we found the following. First, the negative effects on the agriculture food processing industries by preferential treatment of the bio-fuel industry and bio-fuel related industries remained small. Second, the production volume of other agriculture products such as livestock, fishery, rubber and other crops decreased because production shifted to bio-material crops for the bio-fuel industry. Third, an increase in the indirect tax for service industries had the largest negative effects on the transportation and communication industries.Based on the above, if the Thai government can promote bio-fuel usage policies as planned, it is possible not only to reduce CO2 emissions but also to increase the benefits for the household sector.JEL Classification: C68, O53, Q42, R13, R38

Evaluation of Best Management Practices in Millsboro Pond Watershed Using Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) Model

The Inland Bays in southern Delaware (USA) are facing eutrophication due to the nutrient loading from its watershed. The source of nutrients in the watershed is predominantly agriculture. The Millsboro Pond, a sub-watershed within the Inland Bays basin, was modeled using the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model. It was found that the contribution of ground water from outside the watershed had a signifi-cant impact on the hydrology of the region. Once the model was calibrated and validated, five management scenarios were implemented, one at a time, to measure its effectiveness in reducing the nutrient loading in the watershed. Among the Best Management Practices (BMPs), planting winter cover crops on the agricul-ture land was the most effective method in reducing the nutrient loads. The second most effective method was to provide grassland riparian zones. The BMPs alone were not able to achieve the nutrient load reduc-tion as required by the Total Maximum Daily Loads (TMDLs). Two extra scenarios that involved in replac-ing agriculture land with forest, first with deciduous trees and then with high yielding trees were considered. It is suggested that to achieve the required TMDL for the watershed, some parts of the agricultural land may have to be effectively converted into the managed forest with some high yielding trees such as hybrid poplar trees providing cellulose raw material for bio fuels. The remaining agriculture land should take up the prac-tice of planting winter cover crops and better nutrient management. Riparian zones, either in form of forest or grasslands, should be the final line of defense for reducing nutrient loading in the watershed.

Use of genetic markers in the investigation of starch content in maize

The chemical composition of maize makes it suitable for a wide range of nonconventional uses, including utilisation as a new source of energy for the 21st century as a raw material for biofuel. The aim of the experiments was to amalgamate the application of genetic markers with conventional breeding methods to produce maize hybrids whose starch content and ecostability satisfied the demands of industrial use, while having yield potential and agronomic traits on a par with those of hybrids currently cultivated. The chemical quality of 220 lines was evaluated using the NIR spectrometric technique, and the five maize inbred lines with the lowest and highest starch contents were selected for genetic marker studies. The variety identification of the lines was carried out using the isoenzymes stipulated by UPOV. The following SSR (simple sequences repeat) markers were tested: phi 095, umc 1057, nc 004, phi 096, nc 007, umc 1564, phi 85, y1 SSR, umc 1178, nc 009, phi 070, umc 1066, umc 1741, umc 1069, phi 033, phi 061, wx, phi 032, phi 084 and phi 062. The analysis of the fragment patterns revealed three SSR markers that appeared to be correlated with the starch content of the maize lines. These were the primer pairs y1 SSR, umc 1069 and phi 062 . These results are only of a preliminary nature, however, as the incorporation of starch is probably regulated by several genes, and the studies suggest it is also influenced by several environmental factors. It also appears likely that the bioethanol yield is determined not only by the starch content, but also by other parameters. Further research should thus be expanded to include investigations into the structural and fermentability traits of starch molecules, including the characterisation of these traits using genetic markers.

산업용 고구마 개발을 위한 유전자원 현황 및 전망

In many countries including China and U.S., researchers are developing methods to use sweetpotato as raw material for biofuel. We consider the sweetpotato is not only a source of green fuel, it eventually will provide various material including paper, adhesives, biodegradable plastics, and secondary metabolites. Sweetpotato is one of the high efficiency crop because it yields more calories per unit area than either maize or potato, and it requires the shortest growing cycle of the root crops grown in the tropics. Sweetpotato is the most useful crop for the coming starchbased industry era. Sweetpotato genetic resources are collected, characterized, evaluated, and maintained by U.S., China, Japan, and the International Potato Center. New varieties of sweetpotato using the proper genetic resources and molecular breeding will be developed to cope with the global food and energy in 21st century.

How much palm oil do we need?

Palm oil is an important source of edible oil, and also a potential biofuel raw material. In the sometimes heated debate over the expansion of the oil palm industry, the distinction between these uses is rarely made. Future demand for edible oil can be estimated from population projections and per capita consumption. Demand will probably be around 240 Mt in 2050, nearly twice today's total. Most of the additional oil may be palm oil, which has the lowest production cost of the major oils, but soya bean oil production will probably also increase. An additional 12 Mha of palms could be required, if average yields continue to rise as in the past. This need not be at the expense of forest; oil palm planted on anthropogenic grassland could supply all the oil required for edible purposes in 2050. However, biofuel demand might greatly exceed that for edible use, and the interchangeability of the major oils, for edible and biofuel uses, means that this demand will drive oil palm expansion, whether or not palm oil is actually used for biodiesel. The importance of subsidies for biodiesel, the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil and the roles of banks and NGOs are briefly discussed.