Raven's Standard Progressive Matrices Research Articles

Rendezvous with IQ: Metacognition in real-life situations

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between metacognition as measured in real-life situations and IQ scores as reflected by performance on the Raven Standard Progressive Matrices Scale. It is also intended in this study to report on whether or not there were significant differences in performance on the metacognitive instrument (i.e. metacognitive test, reaction time, and metacognitive test scores divided by mean reaction time) among participants with typical development, deaf and hard-of-hearing (dhh), and low-achieving individuals with and without the influence of IQ. Analysis showed significant correlations between IQ, metacognitive test, and metacognitive test scores divided by mean reaction time but not with reaction time itself. Results revealed the influence of IQ on metacognition being greater than the influence of metacognition on IQ. Results showed when controlling for the effect of IQ, differences among the three groups of participants on the metacognitive instrument become non-significant. Implications and suggestions are presented.

THE FEASIBILITY OF USING A TEST GENERATOR TO AMELIORATE LEARNING EFFECTS IN REPEAT COGNITIVE TESTING

The accurate and valid measurement of cognitive change is important for providing dementia trials outcomes, describing cognitive trajectory in population studies, and for detecting early impairment. Repeating traditional tests has shown clear learning effects, in both laboratory (Salthouse et al, 2004) and epidemiological studies (Gallacher et al, 2008). A major determinant of learning effect is familiarity with the test items. Using fluid intelligence as the cognitive domain, and Raven's Standard Progressive Matrices (SPM) as the test paradigm, a test generator that enabled item familiarity to be manipulated is demonstrated as an option for use in pharmacologic and epidemiologic studies. Corvus, a Raven's-like test generator was designed and built. Item familiarity can be manipulated using varying similarity between element attributes, layouts, rules and answer sets. To investigate the impact of item familiarity data were collected from 25 individuals who were randomised to complete either tests generated by Corvus or SPM on 5 occasions over a 14 day period. There were two indices of performance, test duration and test score. Test duration reduced over the five occasions for both Corvus (Figure 1) and SPM (Figure 2). However SPM showed a significantly greater reduction in test duration. Additionally participants taking Corvus sped up at a relatively constant rate throughout the test, while participants taking SPM sped up to a greater degree on harder questions and begin to approach a constant time per item regardless of difficulty. For test score there was only marginal change for both tests. The use of item generators to produce parallel test versions has advantages over the use of parallel test items. Data presented here shows that a test generator (Corvus) can be used to assess fluid intelligence and ameliorates item familiarity effects.

Comparing brain activations associated with working memory and fluid intelligence

Working memory (WM) and fluid intelligence (Gf) are thought to be highly related, though psychometrically distinct cognitive constructs. Both are important in a wide range of cognitively demanding tasks, and predictive of success in educational, occupational, and social domains. From a cognitive perspective, WM and Gf may share a capacity constraint due to the shared demand for attentional resources. Neuroimaging investigations of these two cognitive constructs have suggested similar shared frontal and parietal areas of neural activation as well, though to our knowledge the two have not been investigated in the same population. Here, we examine group level functional activations for tasks of WM (dual n-back), Gf (Raven's Standard Progressive Matrices; RSPM), as well as a theoretically unrelated comparison task of visual word/pseudoword decoding (lexical decision task) in a large sample of healthy young adults (N=63) aged 18–40. Consistent with previous research, results indicate large areas of fronto-parietal activation in response to increasing task demands for the n-back task (dorsolateral, ventrolateral, and rostral prefrontal cortex, premotor cortex, and posterior parietal cortex), which largely subsume similar but more circumscribed regions of activation for the RSPM and lexical decision tasks. These results are discussed in terms of a task-general central network which may underlie performance of WM, Gf, and word decoding tasks alike, and perhaps even goal-directed behaviour more generally.

Selected correlates associated with test anxiety among 14-16 year olds in a Colombo district school

Introduction: Worldwide studies have identified varied correlates associated with test anxiety in school children. Such studies are rare in Sri Lanka. Objective: The present study aimed to explore the association between test anxiety and selected correlates in a group of Sri Lankan school children. Method: All children (n=107) in the 10 th grade in a selected school completed a psychometric test-battery which was a part of a larger study. These included the Ravens Standard Progressive Matrices (assesses intelligence), Westside Test Anxiety Scale (assesses test anxiety), and the Personality Assessment Questionnaire (assesses personality maladjustment). The students also completed a socio-demographic questionnaire. Their previous semester academic averages were obtained from the school administration. The Colombo Medical Faculty Ethics Review Committee approved the study. Results: Personality maladjustment and test anxiety were significantly and positively correlated (Pearson coefficient correlation = 0.438). The students’ previous semester academic scores were also analysed in relation to test anxiety using non-parametric methods. Academic averages showed a significant negative correlation with test anxiety(Spearman coefficient correlations = -0.234) and a significant positive correlation with intelligence (Spearman correlation coefficient = 0.537). The results also showed that the mean scores of test anxiety were significantly higher (p Conclusions : The study indicates that increased personality maladjustment and female gender are associated with test anxiety. It also shows that increased test anxiety is associated with decreased academic performance. (Key words: Test anxiety, examination stress, personality maladjustment, Sri Lankan school children) Sri Lanka Journal of Child Health , 2017; 46 (2): 117-121

Neurobiological mechanisms for nonverbal IQ tests: implications for instruction of nonverbal children with autism

Traditionally, the neurological correlates of IQ test questions are characterized qualitatively in terms of ‘control of attention’ and ‘working memory.’ In this report we attempt to characterize each IQ test question quantitatively by two factors: a) the number of disparate objects that have to be imagined in concert in order to solve the problem and, b) the amount of recruited posterior cortex territory. With such a classification, an IQ test can be understood on a neuronal level and a subject’s IQ score could be interpreted in terms of specific neurological mechanisms available to the subject. Here we present the results of an analysis of the three most popular nonverbal IQ tests: Test of Nonverbal Intelligence (TONI-4), Standard Raven's Progressive Matrices, and Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-V). Our analysis shows that approximately half of all questions (52±0.02%) are limited to mental computations involving only a single object; these easier questions are found towards the beginning of each test. More difficult questions located towards the end of each test rely on mental synthesis of several disparate objects and the number of objects involved in computations gradually increases with question difficulty. These more challenging questions require the organization of wider posterior cortex networks by the lateral prefrontal cortex (PFC). This conclusion is in line with neuroimaging studies showing that activation level of the lateral PFC and the posterior cortex positively correlates with task difficulty. This analysis has direct implications for brain pathophysiology and, specifically, for therapeutic interventions for children with language impairment, most notably for children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and other developmental disorders.

Fluid intelligence, traits of personality and personality disorders in a cohort of adult KS patients with the classic 47, XXY karyotype.

Klinefelter's syndrome (KS) is associated with specific neurobehavioral features and personality traits. The aim of our study was to investigate fluid intelligence, personality traits and personality disorders (PD) and possible correlations with testosterone in a cohort of adult KS patients. We analyzed 58 adult KS patients with the classic 47, XXY karyotype. The Structured Clinical Interview for axis II disorders was used to assess DSM IV personality disorders. Personality traits were assessed using MMPI-2. Fluid intelligence was tested by using Raven's Standard Progressive Matrices (SPM) Test. Testosterone blood concentration was measured by CMIA. PD prevalence was 31%. Four altered MMPI scales (Social Responsibility, Dominance, Ego Strength and Repression) were found in more than 40% of patients. Overcontrolled hostility and MacAndrew Alcoholism Scale-Revised scales were altered in the PD- group only. Biz-Odd Thinking and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder scale were associated with the presence of personality disorder. The raw SPM score was 44±10.8 without any significant correlation with testosterone. No significant difference in mean age, SPM raw score and MMPI score was observed between eugonadal, hypogonadal and treated patients. Most KS patients had average fluid intelligence. PD prevalence was higher than in the general population. Testosterone was not correlated with fluid intelligence, personality traits or PD, but a reduction in marital distress was observed in treated patients. This could suggest that testosterone therapy can improve physical symptoms and this effect could also improve relationship abilities and wellness awareness.

Neurocognitive profile among Omani who have sustained traumatic brain injury with post-concussion syndrome

BackgroundNeurocognitive disorders, previously not featured in the psychiatric nomenclature such as the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM), have now been included in the latest, fifth edition of the DSM. There is a dearth of studies on neurocognitive disorders among non-western population.AimsThe aim of this study is to compare neuropsychological functioning measured by tests of executive function and cognition among patients marked by apathy and impulsivity following a traumatic brain injury in a non-Western population, Oman.MethodsComparing the performance of various neurocognitive indices including negativistic features and disinhibition, which were identified using the symptom checklists Apathy Evaluation Scale and Disinhibited Evaluation Scale. Comparative neurocognitive measures included tapping verbal reasoning ability (Raven's Standard Progressive Matrices), working memory (Digit Span–Digit Forward–Digit Backward); Buschke Reminding Test, planning/goal-directed (Controlled Oral Word Association Test–verbal fluency, Tower of London(–planning time–number solved), (Wisconsin Card Sorting Test–perseverative errors, and–number of categories solved), and affective ranges (Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale).ResultAnalysis showed that those participants who scored highly at Apathy Evaluation Scale and Disinhibited Evaluation Scale did not differ on indices measuring working memory/attention and affective ranges except for one measure: Digit span-Digit Forward. In the measures operationalized here to tap planning/goal-directed behaviour, the two cohorts differ on all indices except for Tower of London-Number Solved.ConclusionThis study lays ground for further scrutiny in delineating the different characteristics of what previously labelled as frontal dysexecutive phenotype. It indicates that apathetic and disinhibited temperaments marked with specific neuropsychological performance.Disclosure of interestThe author has not supplied his/her declaration of competing interest.

Visual Working Memory Capacity Can Be Increased by Training on Distractor Filtering Efficiency.

It is generally considered that working memory (WM) capacity is limited and that WM capacity affects cognitive processes. Distractor filtering efficiency has been suggested to be an important factor in determining the visual working memory (VWM) capacity of individuals. In the present study, we investigated whether training in visual filtering efficiency (FE) could improve VWM capacity, as measured by performance on the change detection task (CDT) and changes of contralateral delay activity (CDA) (contralateral delay activity) of different conditions, and evaluated the transfer effect of visual FE training on verbal WM and fluid intelligence, as indexed by performance on the verbal WM span task and Raven’s Standard Progressive Matrices (RSPM) test, respectively. Participants were divided into high- and low-capacity groups based on their performance in a CDT designed to test VWM capacity, and then the low-capacity individuals received 20 days of FE training. The training significantly improved the group’s performance in the CDT, and their CDA models of different conditions became more similar with high capacity group, and the effect generalized to improve verbal WM span. These gains were maintained at a 3-month follow-up test. Participants’ RSPM scores were not changed by the training. These findings support the notion that WM capacity is determined, at least in part, by distractor FE and can be enhanced through training.

Gender Differences in the Relationships Between Big Five Personality Traits and Intelligence

Abstract The article presents the results of the pilot study of the relationships between personality traits and intelligence in Russian boys and girls of high school age. We focused on the Big Five personality traits–Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness to experience, Agreeableness and Conscientiousness –and the structure of their relationships with non-verbal intelligence measured with Raven's Standard Progressive Matrices. Significant correlations between Openness and intelligence were only found on the female sample. We revealed similarities and differences in the personality structures of boys and girls. The results are interpreted in the context of socio-cultural explanatory category.

The Intelligence of Yakuts and Ethnic Russians in Yakutia

The intelligence of Yakuts and ethnic Russians in Yakutia was tested with Raven's Standard Progressive Matrices Plus. According to British norms, the average IQ was 97.0 for Yakuts and 97.9 for ethnic Russians. Urban samples scored higher than rural samples.

Psychometric problems with the method of correlated vectors applied to item scores (including some nonsensical results)

Spearman's hypothesis stating that ethnic group differences on cognitive tests are most pronounced on the most highly g loaded tests has been commonly tested with Jensen's method of correlated vectors (MCV). This paper illustrates and explains why MCV applied to item-level data does not provide a test of measurement invariance and fails to provide accurate information about the role of g in group differences in test scores. I focus on studies that applied MCV to study group differences on items of Raven's Standard Progressive Matrices (SPM). In an empirical illustration of the psychometric problems with this method, I show that MCV applied to 60 SPM items incorrectly yields support for Spearman's hypothesis (so-called Jensen Effects suggesting that the group difference is on g) even when the items in the second group are not from the SPM but rather from a test composed of 60 items measuring either anxiety and anger or the big five personality traits. This shows that MCV applied to item level data does not accurately reflect the degree to which item bias or g plays a role in group differences. I conclude that MCV applied to items lacks both sensitivity and specificity.

Error patterns on the Raven's Standard Progressive Matrices Test

Although many psychometric tests, like the Raven's Progressive Matrices test, are commonly evaluated according to total score, additional variables can lend insight into the underlying cognitive processes of the test takers. We examine conceptual errors on the Raven's Standard Progressive Matrices (SPM) test. We present a new, complete classification of error types on the SPM using a two-kind coding scheme. We also present a new method for analyzing group errors patterns on these kinds of tests. We present two examples of this analysis using our SPM error classification. The first looks at the errors made by an artificial intelligence model of Raven's problem solving. The second example looks at the errors made by children and adults who are typically developing or have been diagnosed with autism. We close by discussing implications of this error classification and analysis method for the interpretation of SPM scores, towards a better understanding of the diversity of cognitive processes involved in Raven's problem solving.

Childhood trauma and general cognitive ability: Roles of minimization/denial and gender

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of minimization and gender on the interaction between childhood trauma and general cognitive ability. The study included 345 students. The data were obtained via an information form, the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ), and Raven's standard progressive matrices (RSPM). The mean CTQ total score and the mean sexual abuse, physical, and emotional neglect subscale scores of the male students were significantly higher than those of the female students (p<0.05). The mean minimization score of the female students was greater than that of the male students (p<0.05). However, among the female students with minimization scores of 3, there was a moderate and significant negative correlation between the CTQ and RSPM scores (r=−0.533, p<0.05). This study found that general cognitive ability was influenced by childhood trauma among female students with higher minimization/neglect scores. The results of the current study suggest that ignoring the effects of minimization may be a misleading factor for determining the gender ratio of childhood trauma and evaluating its effect on long-term cognitive functions.

Can we recognise malingerers? The association between malingering, personality traits and clinical impression among complainants in civil compensation cases

Malingering of a cognitive deficit (i.e. memory and/or intellectual functioning) commonly occurs in civil and criminal cases. The aim of the study was to investigate the relationship between malingering and personality traits in civil cases. 63 participants (46 male, 17 female) seeking financial compensation following an accidental injury and referred for a neuropsychiatric assessment completed the Test of Malingering (TOMM), Raven's Standard Progressive Matrices (RSPM), and the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ-RS). 23 participants (36.5%) malingered on the TOMM and four (6.3%) malingered on the RSPM. No significant difference was found in the personality scores between the malingerers and non-malingerers. Regression analyses, using malingering on the TOMM as a continuous outcome variable, showed no effects of personality on the extent of malingering on Trial 1, Trial 2 or Retention trial. There was no agreement found between independent clinical impressions and malingering on the tests. The lack of a relationship between malingering and personality suggests that malingering is situation specific and influenced by ‘adaptational’ factors (i.e., a cost–benefit analysis) rather than ‘criminological’ motivational factors. The findings suggest that malingering tests should be administered routinely in assessments of civil compensation cases.

Cognitive Characteristics of Gifted and Not Gifted Fifth-grade Chilean Students from Economically Vulnerable Contexts

The purpose of the study was to reveal the cognitive characteristics of talented children who come from economically vulnerable contexts in Chile. Raven's Standard Progressive Matrices (SPM) was administered to a sample of 5160 students who took part in the process of identification of gifted students from the program PENTA UC in Chile between 2001 and 2010, when the participants were in the fifth grade. Results showed that there is a possible ceiling effect in SPM and thus Advanced Progressive Matrices might be more appropriate in the future identification process. Gifted Chilean students from public schools differ from not gifted students in both perceptual and analytical abilities, even at the early age of 10-11 years. Important gender differences emerged in solving the most difficult items of the test, more precisely in the rules applied in their solution. Gifted boys showed an advantage in addition/subtraction or distribution of two rules, whereas gifted girls did better in distribution of three rules. Results from this study could contribute not only to the process of identification of gifted students, but also to the proposition of adequate educational policy, corresponding to the cognitive characteristics of the children with academic talent.

Benefits in tasks related to everyday life competences after a working memory training in older adults.

The impact of working memory (WM) training on everyday life functioning has rarely been examined, and it is not clear whether WM training gains are transferred to reasoning abilities. The aim of this study was to assess the efficacy of a verbal WM training in older adults, in terms of specific gains and transfer effects to everyday life and reasoning abilities. Thirty-six community dwelling older adults (from 65 to 75 years of age) were randomly assigned to a training or an active control group. The specific gains in a WM task similar to the one trained were assessed. Transfer effects to everyday life and reasoning abilities were also examined using (i) objective performance-based tasks (the Everyday Problem Test and the Timed Instrumental Activities of Daily Living Scale) and (ii) the Cattell test and Raven's Standard Progressive Matrices, respectively. Only the trained group showed specific benefits and transfer effects to one of the everyday abilities measures (the Everyday Problem Test) and in the two reasoning tasks. These results suggest that WM training can positively impact cognitive functioning and, more importantly, older adults' abilities in everyday living. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Genetic Polymorphism of GABRR2 Modulates Individuals' General Cognitive Ability in Healthy Chinese Han People.

Previous studies have indicated that the cognitive impairment or deficit is associated with GABAergic signaling in central nervous system. Inspired by the finding that receptor GABRR2 modulates concentration of GABA and phasic inhibitory GABAergic transmission in brain. This study investigated to what extent a genetic variant (c.1423C>T, rs282129) of GABRR2 gene modulates individuals' general cognitive ability in 987 Chinese Han people. Results showed a significant influence of GABRR2 gene polymorphism on individuals' Raven's Standard Progressive Matrices (RSPM) performance (F=3.58, P=.028 by ANOVA and χ 2=9.35, P=.009 by K-W test, respectively), even if non-genetic factors were partialed out (gender, major, types of birthplace, and socioeconomic index) (B=-.67, SE=.26, t=2.63, P=.009). The finding provided a strong evidence, to our knowledge, for the view that genetic variant of GABRR2 gene may contribute to the difference of individuals' general cognitive ability, independently.

Polymorphic variation in CHAT gene modulates general cognitive ability: An association study with random student cohort

The choline O-acetyltransferase (CHAT) gene has been associated with various human disorders that involve cognitive impairment or deficiency. However, the influence of disease-associated variants of CHAT on normal individuals remains dubious. Here we demonstrated the impact of CHAT sequence variants (G-120A) on general human cognitive ability in a cohort of 750 Chinese undergraduate students. A multiple choice questionnaire was used to obtain basic demographic information, such as parents’ occupations and education levels. We also administered and scored the Raven’s Standard Progressive Matrices (RSPM). A one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Kruskal–Wallis test (K–W) revealed a significant association between sequence polymorphisms of G-120A and individuals’ Raven score (p=0.031 for ANOVA and p=0.026 for K–W tests). Moreover, further hierarchical analysis showed a similar trend in the association between G-120A variants and Raven scores only in the female subjects (p=0.008 for ANOVA and p=0.024 for K–W tests) but not in the male subjects. The results of a multiple linear regression confirmed that after we controlled gender, age, birthplace and other non-genetic factors, CHAT G-120A polymorphisms still significantly influenced individual Raven scores (B=−0.70, SE=0.28, t=−2.50, p=0.013). Our results demonstrated that sequence variants of CHAT were associated with human cognitive ability in not only patients with psychiatric disorders but also normal healthy individuals. However, some issues remained indeterminable, such as gender differences and the extent of the influence on individuals’ general cognitive abilities; thus, the further research using an independent random sample was required.

Effect of fluoridated water on intelligence in 10-12-year-old school children.

Aim:The aim of the present study was to evaluate the relationship of drinking water fluoride levels with children's intelligence quotient (IQ).Materials and Methods:Water was collected from initially identified endemic fluoride regions according to the geological research of Government of India. Fluoride concentration of the water was assessed by utilizing fluoride ion selective electrode, Orion 9609BN, and categorized on the basis of fluoride concentration into low, medium, and high-fluoride regions, i.e., Virajpet (low fluoride level < 1.2 ppm), Banavara (Medium fluoride level 1.2–2 ppm), and Mastihalli (High fluoride levels > 3 ppm). Government school from all three villages were selected randomly and IQ levels were assessed by using Raven's Standard Progressive Matrices. This test was conducted on each child in the study sample.Results:A significant inverse relationship was found between the fluoride concentration in drinking water and IQ (r value = −0.204; P < 0.000). It was observed that IQ level was negatively correlated with fluoride concentration in drinking water.Conclusion:It is concluded that IQ level was negatively correlated with fluoride level in drinking water. Factors that might affect children's IQ need to be considered, and it is necessary to devise solutions for preventing the harmful effects of excessive intake of fluoride ion to the body.

Effect of environmental factors on intelligence quotient of children.

Introduction:A child's intelligence quotient (IQ) is determined by both genetic and environmental factors that start from the prenatal period itself. There is a lack of data on the factors which influence IQ in Indian children; therefore, we conducted a multicenter questionnaire-based study to determine the environmental factors which influence IQ in Indian children.Participants and Methods:In this cross-sectional observational study, we recruited 1065 schoolchildren between the age of 12 and 16 years from 2 government and 13 private schools in 5 towns, 6 cities, and 2 villages across India. All the children were administered a questionnaire consisting of various environmental factors such as parents' education, occupation, income, and the physical activity of the students. IQ scores were assessed using Ravens Standard Progressive Matrices. An approximate IQ score was calculated using the score on the Ravens test. IQ scores were divided into three groups: below normal IQ (0–79), normal IQ (80–119), and high IQ (above 120). The data were analyzed using SPSS software.Results:In this study, it was observed that the environmental factors such as place of residence, physical activity, family income, parental education, and occupation of the father had an impact on the IQ of the children. Children living in cities (P = 0.001), children having physical activity more than 5 h/weeks (P = 0.001), children with parents having a postgraduate or graduate level of education (P = 0.001), children whose father having a professional job (P = 0.001), and those with a higher family income (P = 0.001) were more likely to have high IQ.Conclusions:In the present study, we found that various environmental factors such as place of residence, physical exercise, family income, parents' occupation and education influence the IQ of a child to a great extent. Hence, a child must be provided with an optimal environment to be able to develop to his/her full genetic potential.