Birds Of Prey Research Articles

Anguilla anguilla vs Contracaecum rudolphii: Granuloma allows host tolerance and parasite survival

High survival of the nematode Contracaecum rudolphii in European eel, Anguilla anguilla L. despite an extensive recruitment of immune cells in granulomas is described. A total of 39 eel specimens captured in Canneviè lagoon (Northern Adriatic Sea, Italy) was obtained from local fishermen. The fish were examined for the presence of endoparasitic helminths. Twenty-six eels (67%) harbored third-stage larvae (L3) of Contracaecum rudolphii A and the intensity of infection ranged from 1 to 100 parasites per fish (mean 11.4). A total of 296 larvae were counted and 293 were alive and encysted in the serosa (primarily on external surface of the rectum) as conspicuous granulomas, appearing as white nodules. Histological sections showed a granuloma formed around an individual larva and consisted of three concentric cell layers, containing numerous mast cells (MCs), fibroblasts, macrophages, and epithelioid cells. Encysted larvae were also present in other layers of the intestinal wall, including the mucosa, where recruitment of macrophage aggregates in lamina propria was documented. Immunohistochemical investigations, applying eight antibodies raised against immune cell markers, revealed histamine and serotonin in MCs and inducible-nitric oxide synthase and toll-like receptor-2 in macrophages surrounding the parasite larvae. The study indicates that this innate cellular response in the eel has a chronic inflammatory character and keeps the nematode larvae arrested in a state allowing both host tolerance and parasite survival. The European eel serves as prey for birds and the high survival of C. rudolphii A larvae in the eel indicates that this fish species is a good paratenic host for the parasite allowing completion of its life cycle in birds.

Hindlimb myology in two piscivorous raptorial birds: a quantitative comparison of the osprey and the white‐tailed sea eagle (Aves, Accipitriformes)

AbstractThe hindlimbs of Accipitriformes are vital for capturing prey. Research on hindlimb musculature has primarily focused on species preferring avian and mammalian prey, whereas piscivorous species have received limited attention. This study aims to investigate the quantitative characteristics of hindlimb muscles in two piscivorous Accipitriformes, Pandion haliaetus and Haliaeetus albicilla, to discern potential muscular features associated with their specific food preference. The mass and proportion of all hindlimb muscles in both species were assessed based on their primary function (flexion or extension). A Kruskal‐Wallis test was employed to analyze possible differences in muscle mass between species. The allometric relationships between the muscles and body mass were explored with the reduced major axis method. Additionally, a study on the architectural parameters of the primary gripping muscles in P. haliaetus was conducted, using published information from other raptorial birds for comparison. The isometric scaling relationship predominated in the majority of individual muscles helping maintain a proportional relationship relative to body mass. Both species exhibited a similar pattern in terms of quantitative muscle features, implying a preservation of muscle characteristics linked to their predatory capabilities. The largest proportion of hindlimb muscle mass was dedicated to digit flexion in accordance with the grasping abilities of birds of prey. The muscles tibialis cranialis, flexor digitorum longus and flexor hallucis longus exhibited the greatest mass, high physiological cross‐sectional area values, and long fibre, categorizing them as high‐power specialists. These muscles are crucial in the flexion movements that produce the gripping action that characterizes birds of prey. Although no statistically significant differences were detected, each species displayed slightly distinct muscular characteristics, particularly in the architectural properties of the flexor muscles controlling digits II, III, and IV. These variations seem to be associated with differences in their prey preferences.

Organic farming reduces pesticide load in a bird of prey

Human activities have led to the contamination of all environmental compartments worldwide, including bird species. In birds, both the environment and maternal transfer lead to high inter-brood variability in contamination levels of pollutants, whereas intra-brood variability is generally low. However, most existing studies focused on heavy metals or persistent compounds and none, to our knowledge, addressed the variability in contamination levels of multiple pesticides and the factors influencing it. In this study, the number of pesticides detected (of 104 compounds searched) and the sum of their concentrations in the blood of 55 Montagu's harrier (Circus pygargus) nestlings from 22 nests sampled in 2021 were used as metrics of contamination levels. We investigated the effect of organic farming at the size of male's home range (i.e., 14 km2) and chicks' sex and hatching order on contamination levels. We did not find a difference between inter-brood and intra-brood variability in pesticide contamination levels, suggesting a different exposure of siblings through food items. While chicks' sex or rank did not affect their contamination level, we found that the percentage of organic farming around the nests significantly decreased the number of pesticides detected, although it did not decrease the total concentrations. This finding highlights the potential role of organic farming in reducing the exposure of birds to a pesticide cocktail.

First Insights on Resistance and Virulence Potential of Escherichia coli from Captive Birds of Prey in Portugal.

Captive birds of prey are often used for pest control in urban areas, while also participating in falconry exhibitions. Traveling across the country, these birds may represent a public health concern as they can host pathogenic and zoonotic agents and share the same environment as humans and synanthropic species. In this work, Escherichia coli from the cloacal samples of 27 captive birds of prey were characterized to determine their pathogenic potential. Isolates were clustered through ERIC-PCR fingerprinting, and the phylogenetic groups were assessed using a quadruplex PCR method. Their virulence and resistance profile against nine antibiotics were determined, as well as the isolates' ability to produce extended-spectrum β-lactamases (ESBLs). The 84 original isolates were grouped into 33 clonal types, and it was observed that more than half of the studied isolates belonged to groups D and B2. Most isolates presented gelatinase activity (88%), almost half were able to produce biofilm (45%), and some were able to produce α-hemolysin (18%). The isolates presented high resistance rates towards piperacillin (42%), tetracycline (33%), and doxycycline (30%), and 6% of the isolates were able to produce ESBLs. The results confirm the importance of these birds as reservoirs of virulence and resistance determinants that can be disseminated between wildlife and humans, stressing the need for more studies focusing on these animals.

Herbicides and pinching off in birds of prey – pilot study

In this pilot study the herbicide tembotrione was detected in three dead nestling goshawks that suffered from excessive feather loss (also known as “pinching-off”) and other internal anomalies. Tembotrione is used in maize cultivation and it blocks an essential enzyme in most plants, thereby preventing photosynthesis. It also blocks this enzyme in birds, which may lead to aberrant chick development. The three goshawk nests were located near farms with maize cultivation and it is likely that the nestlings consumed tembotrione-contaminated prey. Further study is needed to clarify any causal relationship.

Morphometric and DNA sexing accurately in male Javan hawk-eagle (Nisaetus bartelsi) determination at Kamojang Eagle Conservation Center, West Java, Indonesia

Abstract. Withaningsih S, Ilham MF, Rosdianto AM. 2024. Morphometric and DNA sexing accurately in male Javan hawk-eagle (Nisaetus bartelsi) determination at Kamojang Eagle Conservation Center, West Java, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 25: 1167-1173. The Javan hawk-eagle (Nisaetus bartelsi) is a protected and endemic species of eagle in Indonesia whose existence is symbolized by the Garuda Pancasila. Raptors act at the top of the predatory chain and as indicators of environmental health. IUCN data states that N. bartelsi is red-listed as endangered. It is one of Indonesia's most frequently hunted and traded birds, and this trading practice has changed its natural behavior. Therefore, preservation through conservation –one of which is rehabilitation– programs are needed to maintain their sustainability. The ultimate goal of rehabilitation is to release the Javan hawk-eagle back into its natural habitat. In conservation and breeding programs, accurate determination of the sex of raptors is integral to informing conservation decision-making, population management, and research efforts aimed at protecting these iconic birds of prey and their habitats. Therefore, this study aims to determine the sex of male N. bartelsi through morphometric and DNA sexing techniques. The research subjects were seven N. bartelsi rehabilitated at Kamojang Eagle Conservation Center, Garut, Indonesia. Morphometric sexing measurements obtained the following results: two males were consistent upon comparing DNA sexing and Kamonjang Eagle Conservation Centre records observations. Analyses were obtained using primer 2550F/2718R that recognized CHD1-Z and CHD1-W as cleaved. Furthermore, the amplification was successfully read a sexing of N. bartelsi at Kamonjang Eagle Conservation Centre. The analysis primer sets mainly for raptors can assist conservation programs such as breeding programs and data collection for mapping this raptor. In addition, the PCR method can also assist in the accurate management of in-situ and ex-situ conservation.

The red listed eagle owl (Bubo bubo) population in Norway is exposed to POP levels exceeding threshold values for adverse health effects

The eagle owl (Bubo bubo) population in Norway is today classified as critically endangered on the red list of endangered species. Because previous studies have detected high concentrations of Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) in birds of prey, concerns have been raised whether POPs exposure are a significant factor to the substantial decline of the eagle owl population.The aims of this study were to measure the levels of POPs in eagle owls and to assess whether POPs may represent a potential health risk. POPs were analysed in liver samples from 100 eagle owls collected between 1994 and 2014.The concentrations of POPs were generally very high and individual birds had levels among the highest measured worldwide. The contaminant groups analysed were highly correlated (p < 0.0001). The concentrations of sum of Polychlorinated Biphenyls (∑PCB) exceeded the threshold value from moderate to severe health risk in 90% of the birds. The birds with cachectic or lean body condition had significantly higher levels of contaminants than those with higher body condition scores. No significant temporal or spatial trends were noted.The lack of temporal trends, suggest that the downward trend of POPs, appear to be levelling off. The lack of differences between inland and coastal regions suggest that the risk of exposure may be comparable between predatory birds feeding in marine or terrestrial food webs. The significantly higher POPs levels detected in individuals with poor body condition may be due to reduced fat stores and thereby higher concentration in the remaining fat and/or the weight loss could be induced by toxic effects. The high proportion of birds exceeding the threshold values for severe and high risk of adverse effects, suggest that the high contamination load may reduce the eagle owl’s fitness and survival and, thus, contribute to decline of the eagle owl population.

Ocular lesions in birds of prey in Portugal – a retrospective study

Ocular lesions in birds of prey in Portugal – a retrospective study

Gestão da fauna aeroportuária: avaliando o estado de saúde de gaviões asa-de-telha (Parabuteo unicinctus) através da avaliação hematológica

The Harris’ Hawk is commonly used by falconers in falconry as a plan to avoid collisions between birds and aircraft, being trained to capture vultures, herons, Southern caracara, Southern lapwing, and pigeons. The aim of this work was to evaluate the hematological parameters in Harris’ Hawks used in airport fauna management in order to assess the health of these birds, compare the results of hawks from similar characteristics and differentiate parameters of trained and not trained hawks. This study has federal authorization under number 57551-1 (Instituto Chico Mendes de Conservação da Biodiversidade (ICMBio/Ministério do Meio Ambiente, Brazil) on 08/30/2017. In this study, six females and three males of Harris’ Hawks (Parabuteo unicinctus), trained with falconry techniques, were used to control of fauna at the Antônio Carlos Jobim-Galeão International Airport, from Centro de Preservação de Aves de Rapina - CePAR, located in Rio de Janeiro - RJ. All birds were over six months of age, clinically healthy and in good body condition. The following analysis were performed: weight, erythrocyte counts, hemoglobin dosage, hematocrit, quantification of the mean corpuscular volume, mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration, count of leukocytes, basophils, eosinophils, heterophils, lymphocytes and monocytes, processed by microscopy. Compared to other studies of Harris’ Hawks hematological parameters, this study presented decreased values for erythrocytes, hemoglobin, hematocrit, mean corpuscular volume and mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration, while indicators such as leucocyte, heterophils and lymphocytes were increased. In conclusion, trained birds of prey are more susceptible to stressful factors, which can cause alterations in hematological parameters.

Three-Dimensional Examination of Humerus and Antebrachium Bones in the Red hawk (Buteo Rufinus) with Computed tomography (CT)

The red hawk (Buteo Rufinus) is a medium-sized bird of prey with wide wings, belonging to the order Falconiformes and a member of the Accipitridae family. The Red hawk is a wild bird species and is easily recognized by its black feathers and red color on its wing feathers. In poultry, the thoracic extremity is developed as a wing. Techniques such as radiography, computed tomography and magnetic resonance contribute significantly to the evaluation of biological data in endangered species and wildlife because they provide the best view of anatomical structures and organs, are non-invasive, and allow sensitive diagnoses. The aim of this study was to create 3D models of the humerus and antebrachium bones of the Red hawk, an important bird of prey, with multi-detector computer tomography and to examine the bones mentioned morphologically and morphometrically through the models obtained. Humerus and antebrachium bones of a total of 6 dead adult Red hawks, 3 females and 3 males, were used as materials. When the morphometric results were examined, the average humerus length, average ulna length and average radius length in Red hawks were expressed in mm for the left and right extremities, regardless of gender. Moreover morphometric measurements of the humerus, ulna and radius bones were compared statistically between the right and left wings, and it was concluded that there was a significant difference between some values with a value of p

Significant Turning Point: Common Buzzard (Buteo buteo) Exposure to Second-Generation Anticoagulant Rodenticides in the United Kingdom.

Second-generation anticoagulant rodenticides (SGARs) are widely used to control rodent populations, resulting in the serious secondary exposure of predators to these contaminants. In the United Kingdom (UK), professional use and purchase of SGARs were revised in the 2010s. Certain highly toxic SGARs have been authorized since then to be used outdoors around buildings as resistance-breaking chemicals under risk mitigation procedures. However, it is still uncertain whether and how these regulatory changes have influenced the secondary exposure of birds of prey to SGARs. Based on biomonitoring of the UK Common Buzzard (Buteo buteo) collected from 2001 to 2019, we assessed the temporal trend of exposure to SGARs and statistically determined potential turning points. The magnitude of difenacoum decreased over time with a seasonal fluctuation, while the magnitude and prevalence of more toxic brodifacoum, authorized to be used outdoors around buildings after the regulatory changes, increased. The summer of 2016 was statistically identified as a turning point for exposure to brodifacoum and summed SGARs that increased after this point. This time point coincided with the aforementioned regulatory changes. Our findings suggest a possible shift in SGAR use to brodifacoum from difenacoum over the decades, which may pose higher risks of impacts on wildlife.

Blood lead levels in an endangered vulture decline following changes in hunting activity

Lead ammunition stands out as one of the most pervasive pollutants affecting wildlife. Its impact on bird populations have spurred efforts for the phase-out of leaded gunshot in several countries, although with varying scopes and applications. Ongoing and future policy changes require data to assess the effectiveness of adopted measures, particularly in the current context of biodiversity loss. Here, we assessed the long-term changes in blood lead (Pb) levels of Egyptian vultures from the Canary Islands, Spain, which have been severely affected by Pb poisoning over the past two decades. During this period, the reduction in hunting pressure and changes in legislation regarding firearms usage for small game hunting likely contributed to a decrease in environmental Pb availability. As anticipated, our results show a reduction in Pb levels, especially after the ban on wild rabbit hunting with shotgun since 2010. This effect was stronger in the preadult fraction of the vulture population. However, we still observed elevated blood Pb levels above the background and clinical thresholds in 5.6% and 1.5% of individuals, respectively. Our results highlight the positive impact of reducing the availability of Pb from ammunition sources on individual health. Nonetheless, the continued use of Pb gunshot remains an important source of poisoning, even lethal, mainly affecting adult individuals. This poses a particular concern for long-lived birds, compounding by potential chronic effects associated with Pb bioaccumulation. Our findings align with recent studies indicating insufficient reductions in Pb levels among European birds of prey, attributed to limited policy changes and their uneven implementation. We anticipated further reductions in Pb levels among Egyptian vultures with expanded restrictions on hunting practices, including a blanket ban on Pb shot usage across all small game species.

Long-term changes in qualitative composition of the Buzuluk Pine Forest avifauna (Orenburg Province area) based on retrospective and present-time observations

We conducted a comparative analysis of qualitative composition of the Buzuluk Pine Forest avifauna, mainly based on data collected by ornithologist E.P. Knorre for the period 1928–1941, and modern observations done between 2000 and the present. Retrospective data were obtained from the now-defunct Buzuluk Bor Reserve with an area of 10 503 hectares (now Borovoye-Opytnoe Forestry in the Orenburg Province). Present-time personal avifaunistic observations (using standard methods with referring to literature sources) were carried out on an area of 49 000 hectares, both in Borovoye-Opytnoe and in several adjacent forestries that were part of the Buzuluk Bor National Park within the Orenburg Province. Comparing the historical and current bird lists, we used a relative assessment of changes in the composition of various bird groups based on the observed and expected frequencies according to the χ2 test. Long-term data on average annual temperatures and precipitation from a nearby state weather station were also used. As a result, it is shown that by now the list of birds of E.P. Knorre decreased from 153 to 109 species (28.8%). When comparing by orders, the water birds were found to be the most affected group. The number of species in orders Podicipediformes, Ciconiiformes, Gruiformes decreased by 80–100%, and it dropped by more than 50% in orders Anseriformes and Charadriiformes. There was also a slightly smaller decrease in the number of species in orders Falconiformes and Strigiformes – by about 40%. An assessment of the relative changes in various bird groups from Knorre’s list based on expected and observed frequencies showed significant differences in the portion of avifauna associated with water. It decreased between 23.5% and 9% in the group ‘Limnophiles’ (χ2 = 11.7, df = 1, p = 0.0006) and between 24.8% and 9% in the group of orders represented by waterfowl and waterbird species (χ2 = 13.4, df = 1, p = 0.0002). The change in the portion of birds of prey was statistically non-significant. The same portion assessment method did not statistically confirm the decrease in the rest ecological and order groups. Comparison of groups by occurrence status found no significant changes in the portions of all groups of birds in the past and present, but the largest reduction was recorded in the group of migrating species. The portion of migrants decreased from 8.7% to 3.0% (χ2 = 3.2, df = 1, p = 0.07, Yates corrected χ2 = 2.2, p = 0.1). A dramatic decline in group of bird species associated with wetlands was suggested to be due, among other factors, to the progressive desiccation of the Buzuluk Pine Forest, as E. Knorre himself wrote in his report. The ongoing aridization of the climate, as shown by the graph of average annual air temperatures, has been taking place since at least the 20s of the twentieth century and led to the drying-up of wetlands, and also to migration of groundwater to deeper horizons. The emerging trend towards a reduction in the portion of migrants could be explained by the fact that a number of migratory bird species, mainly ducks and waders, disappeared in the study area, and several other migrants began breeding species. In addition, large-scale fires and logging led to formation of burned wasteland areas inside the forest at the beginning of the twentieth century and also probably contributed to fragmentation and desiccation of this biome.

Antimicrobial Resistance and Virulence Potential of Bacterial Species from Captive Birds of Prey-Consequences of Falconry for Public Health.

Falconry has been practiced for thousands of years and is nowadays frequently employed in activities such as pest control, hunting, falcon racing, and environmental education. Antimicrobial resistance levels have risen in the past years, constituting an emerging global problem with a direct impact on public health. Besides both topics being studied on their own, information on the role of captive birds of prey in the potential dissemination of virulence factors and antimicrobial resistance determinants of bacterial origin is scarce. Multidrug-resistant bacteria, including some extended-spectrum β-lactamase producers, have already been found in several captive birds of prey. Most of the virulence factors found in captive raptors' bacteria were related to adherence and invasion abilities, toxin production, and flagella. These birds may acquire these bacteria through contaminated raw food and the exchange of animals between keepers and zoological facilities. More studies are required to confirm the role of captive birds of prey in disseminating resistant bacteria and on the routes of interaction between synanthropic species and humans.

Between grasslands, shrublands and forests. Paleoenvironmental and taphonomic implications of micromammals in hunter-gatherer archaeological contexts of Southern Pampean Hills

ABSTRACT The integral study of micromammals recovered from archaeological contexts provides a number of contributions to the understanding of the dynamics of human occupation. In this paper, based on a comprehensive study of Holocene and actualistic samples from central Argentina, we discuss the taphonomic and paleoenvironmental implications in sites with hunter-gatherer occupations. The sequence studied (ca. 1500–4500 BP) indicates the presence of natural predators (i.e. nocturnal and diurnal birds of prey) as responsible for the formation of the assemblage, ruling out, so far, the participation of human groups. On the other hand, the taxonomic composition of the preterite and actualistic assemblages shows a process of advancement of shrubland and forest environments at the expense of the decrease of open environments, grassland and fresh water contexts.

Effects of insecticide spray drift on arthropod prey resources of birds in grasslands in Minnesota

AbstractSoybean aphid (Aphis glycines) insecticides are used throughout the Upper Midwest and Great Plains regions of North America, including the farmland region of Minnesota, USA, to combat insect pests. These broad‐spectrum, foliar spray insecticides have the potential to drift beyond target fields into nearby grassland cover where birds and other insectivores forage. Arthropods serve important roles in grassland ecology and are susceptible to mortality and sublethal effects from exposure to these pesticides. Our objective was to assess effects of soybean aphid insecticides on grassland arthropods, especially those that are important in grassland bird diets. We measured the abundance, consumable biomass, and family richness of insects and spiders in grasslands adjacent to soybean fields in an agricultural landscape. Soybean fields were treated with chlorpyrifos and lambda‐cyhalothrin, which were the 2 most common foliar pesticides used to control soybean aphids in Minnesota. We compared measures at focal sites to samples collected at reference sites adjacent to corn fields not sprayed for aphids during 3 periods in mid‐to‐late summer: 1–3 days before spraying, 3–5 days post‐spraying, and 19–21 days post‐spraying. The abundance of arthropods in focal grasslands was lower 3–5 days after pesticide applications. Coleoptera family richness at focal sites was also lower than at reference sites 3–5 days after pesticide applications. These measures 19–21 days after application were similar to pre‐spraying levels, indicating that arthropod populations rebounded during this period. Measures of consumable dry biomass, bird prey abundance, bird prey biomass, family richness of Araneae, family richness of Hemiptera, and family richness of Orthoptera were not different between focal and reference sites after spraying. Our results reveal that reductions in arthropod food abundance for grassland birds are associated with pesticide applications up to 5 days after spraying. We suggest that natural resource managers factor proximity to row crop fields and susceptibility to pesticide drift into decisions about where to add grassland cover to landscapes.

Mercury in the feathers of Golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) from Western Carpathian, Slovakia

In this study, mercury (Hg) concentrations were detected in feathers of golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos), a bird that typically inhabits alpine and forest areas. The mercury rates in feathers were compared in two groups of eagles: first, estimated home range (breeding, hunting, etc.) was located only in forest and lowland meadow habitats; second, the home range also included alpine habitats—rocks and meadows. Consequently, mercury concentration based on the feather typology were observed and the mercury levels in feathers were also compared among different Slovak Western Carpathian districts. It was found that there was no significant difference between groups classified by elevation level, which we attribute to the fact that eagle hunting territories are broad, so that alpine-dwelling and forest-dwelling eagles do not only reflect the pollution of the environments they typically inhabit. Non-significant differences were found also within different feather types, which means that the type of feather is not crucial for tracking mercury in eagle feathers. As the measurement of feather appears to be a simple and non-invasive method, the detection of non-significant differences in diverse types of golden eagle feathers provides useful knowledge for the future environment monitoring. The average mercury concentration measured in eagle samples was lower than the mercury concentration causing health complications among birds of prey. Our assumption that due to past mining activity in the Spiš region, the highest concentration in this region would be observed was confirmed.

Description and molecular data of a new cestode parasite, Cladotaenia anomala n. sp. (Paruterinidae) from the Australasian harrier (Circus approximans Peale) in New Zealand

Currently comprising 12 species infecting the gastrointestinal tracts of diurnal raptors (Falconiformes, Accipitriformes), species of Cladotaenia are diagnosed by their branching uterus, testes in two fields reaching the same level anteriorly, and small rostellum armed with taenioid hooks arranged in two rows. In this study we describe a new species of Cladotaenia recovered from a number of Australasian harriers Circus approximans, from the southern half of South Island, New Zealand. The new species is distinguished from other species by its single circle of hooks. It is closest, morphologically, to C. circi, but differs in the shape of the terminal proglottids and the number of uterine branches. Sequences of 28S and cox1 gene are presented. Genetically, Cladotaenia anomalan. sp. is closest to Cladotaenia globifera but differs morphologically in the size of the suckers, testes and eggs. This description constitutes the first record of a Cladotaenia species in New Zealand. We discuss some potential routes this parasite may have taken to arrive in New Zealand.

Occurrence and relevance of Mycoplasma sturni in free ranging barn swallows (Hirundo rustica) in Germany

In poultry industry, mycoplasmas cause large economic losses. The pathogenic significance of mycoplasmas varies widely between species. In birds where vocalization is crucial for reproductive success, mycoplasmas seem to be absent. Birds with high mycoplasma prevalence like birds of prey and storks do not rely on their vocalization for reproduction. Corvids with an intermediate prevalence use other strategies besides vocalization for mating. It is hypothesized that mycoplasma prevalence and vocalization used for reproduction is evolutionary related. Barn swallows have two traits relevant for mating: tail feather length and vocalization. An intermediate prevalence is expected. Little is known about mycoplasmas in barn swallows and their role as vector or reservoir for poultry pathogenic mycoplasmas. This study investigates the prevalence of mycoplasmas in barn swallows and their relevance for mycoplasma transmission to poultry. Choanal swabs from 188 healthy barn swallow nestlings of 59 different nests from ten different colonies on farms were examined for mycoplasmas by cultivation and genus-specific PCR including molecular biological differentiation of the species. In total, in 31 of 188 barn swallows (16.49%) and in 14 of the 59 nests (23.73%), mycoplasmas were detected. The occurrence of mycoplasmas per colony ranged from 0 to 50% independent of poultry being kept on the farm. In all positive samples, Mycoplasma sturni was identified. Mycoplasma sturni seems not to be an obligatory pathogen for barn swallows and occurs with an expected intermediate prevalence in them, so the results support the described hypothesis and underline a minor role of barn swallows for mycoplasma infection in poultry.

Differences in haemosporidian parasite prevalence and diversity in migratory and resident birds of prey species revealed by a non-invasive sampling method.

Avian haemosporidian parasites are widespread globally and infect numerous wild bird species. However, they have primarily been studied in passerine birds. Accordingly, the prevalence and diversity of these parasites in birds of prey remain understudied. This lack of research is primarily due to the international protection status of many of these species, their sparse distribution across ecosystems and difficulty to capture in the wild. The aim of this study was to examine the prevalence and diversity of haemosporidian parasites in two species of birds of prey, namely white-tailed eagle and lesser spotted eagle. To achieve this, a non-invasive approach was employed, involving the extraction of DNA from blood spots present in moulted feathers. Freshly moulted feathers were collected from the ground under nests or within the nests of these birds during the breeding season. A visible blood spot located at the junction of the calamus and rachis was removed and fixed in SET buffer for molecular analysis. The identification of haemosporidian parasites (Plasmodium, Haemoproteus and Leucocytozoon) was conducted using PCR-based methods. Overall, parasite DNA was successfully detected in shed feathers that were kept in their original form at least decade prior to analysis. Among the studied individuals, resident white-tailed eagles showed significantly lower infection rates of haemosporidian parasites compared to migratory lesser spotted eagles. A total of nine genetic lineages of haemosporidian parasites were detected, with seven of them being new to science based on partial sequences of the cytb gene. Additionally, the phylogenetic relationships among these new lineages and previously described ones were established. These findings highlight the suitability of non-invasive sampling for investigating the prevalence and diversity of haemosporidian parasites in wild birds of prey populations. Moreover, this approach holds promise for studying other challenging-to-reach and protected bird species. According to our research, there is a greater chance of finding haemosporidian parasites in freshly gathered feathers.