Subspecies Rank Research Articles

First support for phylogenetically segregated ecotypes and delineating thresholds for inter‐ and intraspecific ranks in phytophagous Central Asian beetles (Coleoptera)

AbstractAs defining various taxonomic ranks, especially at and within a specific level, can often be difficult, we used an evolutionarily young group of Central Asian beetles, the genus Anoplistes, to examine the limits between species, subspecies and ecotype. The molecular data (COI genetic distance, haplotype network and species delimitation) and detailed morphology (using SEM) of taxa assigned to the rank of species, subspecies and ecotype were used to verify their taxonomic status and attempt to more precisely establish the boundaries between these concepts. The minimum threshold for the COI genetic distance between species was found to be approximately 3%, while at the threshold of 4%–5% the morphology left no doubt as to the species distinctiveness. The threshold of approximately 2% was accepted as adequate for a subspecies rank, whereas intraspecific variability among individuals of the same subspecies (including its ecotypes) ranged from 0% to 2%. A newly presented colour/elytral pattern form, possibly another ecotype of A. halodendri distributed in western Mongolia, exemplifies adaptation to different environmental conditions via ecological speciation. Our results provide support that ecotypes can form phylogenetically distinct clades. Based on the results of the haplotype network, it can be tentatively concluded that the sand ecotype was the incipient form from which further ecotypes and subspecies developed.

About the nomenclature of the complicated ruderal species Rumex pulcher s.l. (Polygonaceae)

AbstractRumex pulcher is a species native to central and southern Europe, the Mediterranean area, and western Asia, growing mainly in ruderal habitats. It is a highly variable species, with six subspecies currently recognized (i.e., R. pulcher subsp. anodonta, subsp. cassius, subsp. pulcher, subsp. raulinii, subsp. suffocatus, and subsp. woodsii). In addition, there are the Linnaean R. divaricatus and Lojacono‐Pojero's R. usticanus, both of which are often considered heterotypic synonyms of R. pulcher, and several varieties and forms described by C. Haussknecht, which are synonymized with some accepted subspecies of R. pulcher. With the exception of R. suffocatus (basionym of R. pulcher subsp. suffocatus) and R. pulcher f. anodonta (basionym of R. pulcher subsp. anodonta), the names are still untypified and are examined and lectotypified here on specimens deposited at G, JE, PAL, and RO, whereas an illustration by Tilli is designated as the lectotype of the Linnaean R. divaricatus. Rumex usticanus is considered a synonym (syn. nov.) of R. obtusifolius subsp. obtusifolius; R. divaricatus is a synonym of R. pulcher subsp. woodsii. Haussknecht's infraspecific names are considered heterotypic synonyms of R. pulcher subsp. raulinii (R. pulcher f. macrodon) or R. pulcher subsp. woodsii (R. pulcher var. oligomicrodonta, var. microdon, and var. micropleiodontus). Haussknecht's R. pulcher f. anodonta is accepted as separate taxon at subspecies rank (R. pulcher subsp. anodonta). Finally, the type of R. pulcher subsp. woodsii confirms the occurrence (as an old record) of this taxon in the region of Latium (central Italy) where, up to now, it was strangely considered a doubtful record. Further specimens, found at RO and identified as R. pulcher (without specifying any subspecies), confirm the recent occurrence of R. pulcher subsp. woodsii in the Italian region of Latium.

Morphological and genetic data challenge species and subspecies in the Lerista microtis group (Squamata: Scincidae)

The subspecies rank has been widely applied by taxonomists to capture infraspecific variation within the Linnaean classification system. Many subspecies described throughout the 20th century were recognised largely based on perceived variation in single morphological characters yet have since been found not to correspond to separately evolving population lineages, thus requiring synonymy or elevation to full species under lineage-based views of species. These modern lineage-based taxonomic resolutions have resulted from a combination of new molecular genetic techniques, improved geographical sampling of specimens, and more sophisticated analyses of morphological variation (e.g., statistical assessments rather than solely univariate descriptive ones). Here, we revisit the current taxonomic arrangement of species-level and subspecific taxa in the Lerista microtis (Gray) group, which is distributed along a narrow ~2000 km strip on the southern coast of Australia. From specimens of the L. microtis group, an additional species (Lerista arenicola) and two additional subspecies (L. m. intermedia and L. m. schwaneri) were described. We collected data on mensural, meristic, and colour pattern characters to explore morpho-spatial relationships among these taxa. Although our morphological analyses revealed some distinctiveness among specimens from locations assigned to each taxon, this variation is continuous along Australia’s southern coastline, assuming the form of a geographic cline rather than discrete forms. For many characters, however, spatial patterns were inconsistent with the original descriptions, particularly of the subspecies. Moreover, analysis of genome wide restriction-associated DNA loci revealed multiple instances of paraphyly among taxa, with phylogenetic clustering of specimens assigned to distinct species and subspecies. These emerging patterns provide no support for L. arenicola as a species evolving separately from L. microtis. Additionally, our findings challenge the presumed distinctiveness and coherence of the three subspecies of L. microtis. We thus synonymise L. arenicola and the L. microtis subspecies with L. microtis and provide a redescription of a single yet morphologically variable species—an arrangement that best reflects evolutionary history and the continuous nature of morphological variation across space.

Hieracium moravobarbatum (Asteraceae), a new name for the illegitimate H. barbatum Tausch

Hieracium barbatum Tausch (1828: 72) was an illegitimate later homonym of H. barbatum Loiseleur-Deslongchamps (1807: 72). Froelich in Candolle (1838: 223) described this taxon anew as H. racemosum var. barbatum based on the Tausch’s original specimen. Zahn in Hallier (1902: 1925) raised the variety to subspecies rank within H. racemosum s. lat.

Новые комбинации в роде Oreomecon (Papaveraceae)

New nomenclatural combinations at the rank of species in the genus Oreomecon Banfi, Bartolucci, J.-M. Tison et Galasso are published for the 61 taxa previously included in the genus Papaver L. or recently transferred to the genus Oreomecon at the rank of subspecies.

Parasite fauna of sand and stone sculpins (scorpaeniformes, cottidae) from lake Baikal (review of research results and prospects of investigations)

A revision of the composition of parasites of two widely distributed in Baikal species of cottoid fish - the sand ( Leocottus kesslerii Dybowski, 1874) and the stone ( Paracottus knerii Dybowskii, 1874) sculpins was performed. This composition includes 60 species and subspecies of parasites belonging to 10 types, 12 classes, 14 orders, 24 families and 32 genera. It is represented by 21 endemic taxa of species and subspecies rank: these are blood parasites - trypanosomes and cryptobia (2), myxosporidia (5), infusoria (7), monogeneans (1), nematodes (2), acanthocephales (1), leeches (2) and crustaceans (1). Comparison of the parasite fauna of sand and stone sculpins with that of the families Abyssocottidae and Comephoridae showed that most of all this fauna is closely related to the parasite fauna of the family Abyssocottidae. Revision of the parasite composition of two widely distributed fish in Baikal in the light of modern data has identified a number of important problems in the study of fish parasites of this reservoir. Since there has been a transformation of views on the taxonomy of individual groups, new information has been obtained on morphology, molecular biology, biochemistry, life cycles and distribution in the plant and animal world, it is necessary to continue the study of Baikal parasites by modern methods.

The gender gap in names of prokaryotes honouring persons.

The aim of this study is to analyse prokaryotic names which honour persons, eponyms, from a gender perspective. Data were retrieved from the List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature. Excluding new combinations, the etymologies of 23 315 unique names at the rank of genus, species and subspecies were analysed. A total of 2018 (8.7 %) names honour persons (eponyms), for which the development of the female share over time was further investigated. Women started to be honoured very recently (1947) compared to men (1823). Moreover, only 14.8 % of all prokaryotic eponyms refer to females. This ratio has hardly improved since 1947, although the number of women whose contributions to microbiology could have been recognized has increased over time. In contrast, about 50 % of prokaryotic names derived from mythological characters refer to females. To reduce this gender gap, we encourage authors proposing new taxon names to honour female scientists who can serve as role models for new generations.

Proposals to emend Rules 8, 15, 22, 25a, 30(3)(b), 30(4), 34a, and Appendix 7 of the International Code of Nomenclature of Prokaryotes.

To complete the ongoing revision of the International Code of Nomenclature of Prokaryotes, we here propose emendation of Rules 8, 15, 22, 25a, 30(3)(b), 30(4), 34a and Appendix 7. These proposed emendations deal with: the nomenclatural type of taxa above genus; the suitability of names published in supplementary material or in papers published on e-print servers for effective publication; the number of culture collection designations to be included in an effective publication of a name of a species or subspecies to qualify for validation of the name; the kinds of restrictions that may be attached to deposits of type strains; and the question whether elevation of a subspecies to the rank of species or lowering of a species to the rank of subspecies establish new combinations. Some of these emendations change the meaning of the Code while others are mere textual clarifications.

Mammals of Yakutia: Changes in the understanding of the composition of the mammal fauna over the past 50 years and an Annotated List. Part 2. Carnivorous, Cetaceans, and Artiodactyls

This study presents data on the mammal fauna including Carnivora (5 families, 12 genera, and 17 species), Cetacea (2 families, 3 genera, and 3 species), and Artiodactyla (3 families, 8 genera, and 3 species). A total number of 28 species demonstarted an increase in the richness of these taxa over the past 50 years due to the introduction of one carnivorous species and two ungulate species. Among the latter, only the introduction of musk ox can be considered successful. In addition, sporadic occurrences of four species that were not part of the original fauna in Yakutia have been registered. The northern sea lion and bowhead whale can colonize marine regions of Yakutia, whereas the Asian badger can colonize its terrestrial regions if the current climate trend stays unchanged. The tiger is unlikely to survive the Yakutian conditions, due to both low temperatures and low density of the ungulates, which constitute the major part of its food supply. At present, the complete list of species that inhabit the terrestrial and marine areas of Yakutia includes 70 representatives of the Mammalia class. The major part of the mammalian fauna of the region consists of indigenous species, whereas the share of non-native species was only approximately 10%. The changes in the composition of the mammalian fauna over the last 50 years are connected with a better current knowledge of the regional fauna, introduction, and changes in the taxonomic rank of species and subspecies. Moreover, four new species were identified: Chiroptera (2), Insectivora (1), and Rodentia (1). Some clarifications have been made to the taxonomic rank of species and subspecies belonging to the genera Ochotona, Urocitellus, and Alexandromys (Microtus). The use of genetic approach can clarify the taxonomic rank of a number of species. More complete and precise data on the composition of the faunistic list, geographic ranges of these species can be obtained by covering the territorial gaps in the previous studies and additional research on understudied taxa, in particular chiropterans and marine mammals.

Molecular and Morphometric Update on Italian Salicornia (Chenopodiaceae), with a Focus on the Species S. procumbens s. l.

Salicornia is a highly taxonomically problematic genus due to the reduced morphological observable characters. Ten Eurasian species are currently recognized: S. alpini, S. europaea, S. fruticosa, S. hispanica, S. lagascae, S. perennans, S. perennis, S. persica, S. procumbens, and S. pruinosa. In addition, eleven subspecies are accepted, mainly based on their distribution areas. Along the Venetian coasts and in Sardinia, in the past, an endemic species called S. veneta was recognized, but this name was later synonymized with S. procumbens subsp. procumbens. The aim of the present research is investigating different Italian Salicornia populations by a molecular point of view, using the nuclear ribosomal external transcribed spacer ETS and the plastid psbA-trnH intergenic spacer. A particular focus is on the comparison between Venetian (including those occurring in locus classicus of S. veneta) and Sardinian S. procumbens and other Italian populations of this species. The molecular analyses based on the plastid marker highlight that the Italian S. procumbens populations form two well distinct groups. In particular, some of the Venetian (Locus classicus of S. veneta) and all the Sardinian specimens are genetically distinct (=plastid haplotype 1) from the other investigated populations (=plastid haplotype 2). This indicates that the psbA-trnH haplotype 1 glassworts represent a distinct entity, which we suppose to coincide with the former S. veneta. Therefore, we suggest to recognize this taxonomic entity at the subspecies rank, as S. procumbens subsp. veneta comb. and stat. nov. However, contrary to the results found with the plastid psbA-trnH intergenic spacer, the ETS locus does not show a separation into two distinct clades for S. procumbens, probably due to a different evolution of the two loci. Nevertheless, in the ETS phylogenetic reconstruction, the Sardinian specimens (=ribotypes 2 and 3) are placed, together with a Moroccan sample, in a subclade separated from all the other S. procumbens. These results suggest that the Sardinian populations can represent a subspecies/incipient speciation process, probably due to geographic isolation. In the light of this, morphometric analyses (k-means, MANOVA, PCA, DA, and Box-Plot) have been carried out on the Sardinian and Venetian populations to verify if this distinction is detectable also by a morphological point of view. The morphometric analyses highlight the existence of two groups, concerning both the nuclear and plastid trees. Six characters were found to be diagnostic.

A Taxonomic Revision of Chamaecrista (Caesalpinioideae, Cassieae, Cassiinae) in Southern Africa

Abstract— The southern African species of Chamaecrista were all treated under Cassia in Gordon-Gray’s treatment for the Flora of Southern Africa. However, given the subsequent generic recircumscriptions in the subtribe Cassiinae, and the expanded collections of these taxa, there is a need to revisit the taxonomy of the group. The present study aimed to conduct a detailed taxonomic revision of the species of Chamaecrista indigenous to the flora of southern Africa region. Extensive fieldwork was carried out to study the taxa in their natural environment and morphological characters were additionally studied using herbarium material. The revision presented here includes comprehensive descriptions, a key to the species, nomenclature, typifications, diagnostic characters with illustrations, and geographical distribution maps of all recognised taxa. Eleven species of Chamaecrista are recognised for the flora of southern Africa, two of which are described as new, i.e. Chamaecrista grandiglandulata and C. gordon-grayei. In addition, one new subspecies is described, namely C. gordon-grayei subsp. longipedicellata, while Chamaecrista comosa var. capriconia is raised to the rank of subspecies, viz. Chamaecrista comosa subsp. capriconia. The typifications published here include lectotypes designated for Chamaecrista plumosa and C. stricta, neotypes designated for C. capensis var. flavescens, C. comosa, and C. plumosa var. diffusa, and an isolectotype designated for C. stricta.

Empirical and philosophical problems with the subspecies rank.

Species‐level taxonomy derives from empirical sources (data and techniques) that assess the existence of spatiotemporal evolutionary lineages via various species “concepts.” These concepts determine if observed lineages are independent given a particular methodology and ontology, which relates the metaphysical species concept to what “kind” of thing a species is in reality. Often, species concepts fail to link epistemology back to ontology. This lack of coherence is in part responsible for the persistence of the subspecies rank, which in modern usage often functions as a placeholder between the evolutionary events of divergence or collapse of incipient species. Thus, prospective events like lineages merging or diverging require information from unknowable future information. This is also conditioned on evidence that the lineage already has a detectably distinct evolutionary history. Ranking these lineages as subspecies can seem attractive given that many lineages do not exhibit intrinsic reproductive isolation. We argue that using subspecies is indefensible on philosophical and empirical grounds. Ontologically, the rank of subspecies is either identical to that of species or undefined in the context of evolutionary lineages representing spatiotemporally defined individuals. Some species concepts more inclined to consider subspecies, like the Biological Species Concept, are disconnected from evolutionary ontology and do not consider genealogy. Even if ontology is ignored, methods addressing reproductive isolation are often indirect and fail to capture the range of scenarios linking gene flow to species identity over space and time. The use of subspecies and reliance on reproductive isolation as a basis for an operational species concept can also conflict with ethical issues governing the protection of species. We provide a way forward for recognizing and naming species that links theoretical and operational species concepts regardless of the magnitude of reproductive isolation.

Morphological variability and diagnostics of two sculpins Icelus bicornis and I. spatula (Cottiformes: Cottidae) from the Arctic

The morphological variability of Icelus spatula Gilbert et Burke, 1912 and I. bicornis Reinhardt, 1840 was studied in order to clarify the diagnostic characters of these poorly studied fishes. Allometry, geographic variability and sexual dimorphism of species were evaluated by statistical methods based on 24 counts and 30 morphometric indices. Samples from 5 Arctic regions were studied: southwestern Greenland, Spitsbergen, Barents Sea, Laptev and East Siberian seas. An analysis of the variability of diagnostic characters showed that the following can be used to identify species with high certainty: 1) the shape of the urogenital papilla (males); 2) the presence/absence of spinules on the lower-posterior margin of scales of the lateral line below the pore of the canal and the degree of development of spinules on the dorsal margin of these scales; 3) the presence of scales at the base of the caudal fin; 4) presence/absence of bony granules on the skin between the lateral line and dorsal row of scales. Other characters (the number of scales in the lateral line and in rows on the body behind the base of the pectoral fin, the length of the nuchal spines) are more variable. No clinal changes in meristic characters were found over the studied areas of ranges of the two species. Greenland population of I. bicornis differs markedly from the samples from the Barents and Laptev seas, which suggests the possibility of the existence of groups of subspecies rank in these waters. An updated key for identification of juveniles, females and males of I. bicornis and I. spatula is provided.

Campanula tridentata subsp. ruprechtii — новая комбинация и ранг для C. ruprechtii (Campanulaceae)

A new combination in the rank of subspecies, Campanula tridentata Schreb. subsp. ruprechtii (Boiss.) Ogan., distributed in Armenia, Nakhchivan Republic and Iran is published. The lectotype of the name is designated.

Mediterranean Subspecies versus Californian Varieties: An Example from Acmispon (Leguminosae, Loteae)

The tribe Loteae of the family Leguminosae has major centers of diversity in the Mediterranean Region and California. It is used here to illustrate different traditions of taxonomic interpretation of infraspecific variation among researchers in different continents. Recent accounts of European and Mediterranean taxa commonly make an emphasis on recognizing subspecies. In contrast, accounts of North American Loteae recognize all infraspecific taxa as varieties. Harmonization of taxonomic concepts across continents is essential for a more accurate representation of data in global biodiversity databases. It is reasonable to use the rank of subspecies for geographically defined infraspecific units with localized zones of intergradation. Such subspecies may be at least partially compatible across continents and taxonomic groups. In the present paper, we discuss taxa traditionally included in or associated with Acmispon glaber (Vogel) Brouillet (=Syrmatium glabrum Vogel) and demonstrate a need for recognizing three species, of which one has three geographically defined subspecies. Required nomenclatural combinations are proposed. It is proposed that subspecies rather than varieties should be recognized in a number of other species of North American Loteae (and other plant groups). Inland subspecies of Acmispon glaber and A. maritimus offer an opportunity for comparative analysis in an eco-evo-devo framework.

Species, subspecies or morph—what was the Canary Islands Oystercatcher?

Taxonomists now usually recognize 10 extant species of oystercatcher Haematopus, plus the extinct Canary Islands Oystercatcher Haematopus meadewaldoi. Molecular data, however, have recently been used to propose meadewaldoi as either a morph or a subspecies of Eurasian Oystercatcher Haematopus ostralegus. The morph option is untenable for multiple reasons, but we also find subspecies rank problematic given (a) the all‐black plumage and (based on our examination of all known specimens) significantly larger bill of the Canarian taxon, and (b) the global acceptance of species rank for Variable Haematopus unicolor and South Island Oystercatchers Haematopus finschi, which are genetically as close as and morphologically closer than meadewaldoi is to ostralegus but which despite their sympatry rarely interbreed. This case illustrates the difficulties of assessing species rank in shallowly divergent, morphologically conservative groups of birds such as the oystercatchers.

Види та екоморфологічна диференціація роду Arvicola (Mammalia) у Східній Європі

The genus Arvicola is represented in the fauna of Eastern Europe by several taxa and ecological races of semi-species and subspecies rank. Morphological data indicate the taxonomic homogeneity of lowland amphibious forms and a high level of differentiation of some mountain fossorial forms. Analysis of variation of morphometric characters shows a substantial hiatus for the Carpathian form of Arvicola, considered as A. scherman, as well as the absence of sufficient differentiation among other forms such as in lowland water voles from different parts of Ukraine or in mountain forms from the Northern Caucasus. Morphological features of the Carpathian taxon (A. scherman gutsulius) are stable compared to other mountain water vole populations from Europe and its substantial differences from the Caucasian form, which is very close to the lowland A. amphibius, do not support the idea of the ‘effect of mountains’ in the formation of small fossorial forms of Arvicola. The Carpathian Arvicola differs from all of the studied lowland forms in both morphometric and craniometric characters, which are important in the taxonomy and diagnostics of water voles (coefficient of divergence in body and skull dimensions reach CD = 4...5 ϭ. The mountain water vole (A. scherman) is characterized by a number of paedomorphic features that should be recognized as an ancestral state (plesiomorpy), whereas the European water vole (A. amphibius) is considered as an evolutionary advanced and gerontomorphic form. These two species are allopatric and the border between their distribution ranges coincide with the geographic limits of lowland and mountain faunal assemblages. Evidence for the recognition of the mountain fossorial form as either a separate species or an ecological race of the lowland species is considered. The fossorial A. scherman can be included to the group chosaricus–mosbachensis, but it remains unclear whether it should be considered an ancestral form in the evolution of the lowland A. amphibius or as an example of recapitulation of characters due to secondary transition to fossorial lifestyle. A comparison of different geographic forms of Arvicola suggests that the formation of the group took place in piedmont–mountainous areas of Europe, whereas the forms distributed further east are probably derived from the European ones.

Minoa lutea Schwingenschuss, 1954 (Lepidoptera: Geometridae: Larentiinae) recognized as bona species.

The species Minoa murinata (Scopoli, 1763) sensu lato is examined throughout its distribution range. Specimens from central Europe (Germany, Italy, France) are compared with those from Serbia, Croatia, Slovenia and newly collected specimens from eastern Turkey, Armenia, Georgia and Russia. The study is based on a combination of behavioural observations, morphological characters (size, wing coloration, structure of male and female genitalia) as well as genetic data (DNA barcoding). The taxon Minoa murinata var. monochroaria Herrich-Schäffer, 1848 is downgraded from subspecies rank to synonymy of M. murinata. Morphological study of the populations from eastern Turkey, Armenia, Georgia and Russia confirm the taxon Minoa murinata f./ssp. lutea Schwingenschuss, 1954 as a bona species. It is herewith upgraded from synonymy of M. murinata to species level. The results of DNA barcoding are discussed. Wing pattern, male and female genitalia of both species are illustrated.

A taxonomic revision of the Archipini of the Caribbean (Lepidoptera, Tortricidae, Tortricinae).

The Archipini fauna of the Caribbean is revised to include 33 species. Most previously described species occurring in the region are redescribed and figured, with 13 new species: Argyrotaenia brownisp. nov., A. crypticasp. nov. (including A. c. crypticassp. nov. and A. c. praeteritanassp. nov.), A. paradiseisp. nov., A. razowskianasp. nov., Claduncaria rawlinsanasp. nov., Cla. praedictanasp. nov., Cla. tainosp. nov., Clepsis davisisp. nov., Cle. deronisp. nov., Cle. jamesstewartisp. nov., Cle. peroniaesp. nov., Mictocommosis lesleyaesp. nov., and Mictopsichia nyhllindasp. nov. Three new combinations are proposed: Claduncaria mesosignaria (Razowski, 1999), comb. nov. (including Argyrotaenia thamaluncus Razowski, 1999, syn. nov.), Claduncaria minisignaria (Razowski, 1999), comb. nov., and Claduncaria chalarostium (Razowski & Becker, 2000b), comb. nov., stat. nov.Argyrotaenia granpiedrae Razowski & Becker, 2010 is reduced to subspecies rank under Argyrotaenia ceramica Razowski, 1999, resulting in Argyrotaenia ceramica granpiedrae Razowski & Becker, 2010, stat. nov. Four new synonymies are proposed: Clepsis labisclera Razowski & Becker, 2010, syn. nov. as junior synonym of Claduncaria maestrana Razowski & Becker, 2010; Clepsis pinaria Razowski & Becker, 2010, syn. nov. as junior synonym of Clepsis peritana (Clemens, 1860); and Argyrotaenia neibana Razowski, 1999, syn. nov. and A. ochrochroa Razowski, 1999 syn. nov. as junior synonyms of Argyrotaenia amatana (Dyar, 1901). Males of Argyrotaenia felisana Razowski, 1999, A. nuezana Razowski, 1999, and Claduncaria minisignaria (Razowski, 1999), comb. nov. are described for the first time; females of Argyrotaenia jamaicana (Razowski & Becker, 2000a) and Claduncaria ochrochlaena (Razowski, 1999) are described for the first time. The concept of Claduncaria is expanded and its diagnosis is modified to more clearly define its generic boundaries. A unique external sexual coupling mechanism in Claduncaria is discussed. Keys to the genera and species of Caribbean Archipini, distribution maps, a regional checklist, and Neighbor-joining and Maximum Likelihood trees based on COI barcode data are provided. Phylogenetic relationships among Caribbean Archipini are briefly discussed.

Cannabis: the plant, its evolution, and its genetics—with an emphasis on Italy

This paper presents a scoping review of recent literature regarding the phylogenetics of Cannabis, descending the taxonomic ranks of family, genus, species, subspecies, and varieties. The family Cannabaceae now consists of ten genera. Cannabis is a monotypic genus consisting of one species, Cannabis sativa L. The monotypic model is supported by DNA “barcode” studies. Two subspecies are recognized, and the number of varieties has increased to six. When and where Cannabis evolved has been explored, using molecular clock analyses and fossil pollen studies, respectively. The ubiquitous vernacular taxonomy of drug-type plants— “Sativa” and “Indica”—is deconstructed, and placed in a formal botanical framework. Italy has been a crossroads of Cannabis fiber-type plant genotypes, between Europe and Asia.