Range Of Stimuli Research Articles

Motion Increases Recognition of Naturalistic Postures but not Facial Expressions

Although emotion expressions are typically dynamic and include the whole person, much emotion recognition research uses static, posed facial expressions. In this study, we created a stimulus set of dynamic, naturalistic expressions drawn from professional tennis matches to determine whether movement would result in better recognition. We examined participants’ judgments of static versus dynamic expressions when viewing an isolated face, an isolated body, or a whole person. Dynamic expressions increased recognition of whether the player had won or lost the point. In addition, recognition improved when the whole person was presented as opposed to only the face or body. However, overall recognition of wins and losses was poor, with recognition for isolated faces being poorer than chance for winning players. Our findings highlight the importance of incorporating dynamic stimuli and support previous research showing that recognition of naturalistic expressions differs greatly from the commonly-used posed and isolated facial expressions of emotion. Using a wider range of naturalistic stimuli should be incorporated into future research to better understand how emotion recognition functions in daily life.

Transforming faces to mimic natural kin: A comparison of different paradigms

The ability to detect phenotypic similarity or kinship in third-parties' faces is not perfect, but better than chance. Still, some humans are better than others at this task. Yet researchers in kinship detection have difficulties in building up large and diverse datasets of high-quality pictures of related persons. The current experiments tested a novel method for circumventing this difficulty by using morphing techniques in order to generate a wide array of stimuli derived from a limited number of individual pictures. Six experiments tested various stimuli (standard protocol, mirrored face, other-sex face, other-ethnicity face, other-expression face and antiface). Our benchmarks are the similarity or kinship scores achieved by participants when faced with pictures of real siblings. We show that all stimuli, except the antiface, elicit detection scores similar to those elicited by real pictures of actual siblings. In addition, by exploring different experiment parameters (simultaneous or sequential task, kinship or similarity task) and some individual characteristics, these experiments provide a better understanding of kinship detection in third parties. The validation of our new method will allow widening the range of available stimuli to the research community, and even to develop new ecologically relevant experimental protocols that are hardly or not feasible with veridical images.

E-Nature Positive Emotions Photography Database (e-NatPOEM): affectively rated nature images promoting positive emotions

Affectively rated image databases have their main application in studies that require inducing distinct stimuli on subjects. Widespread databases are designed to cover a broad range of stimuli, from negative to positive (valence), and relaxed to excited (arousal). The availability of narrow domain databases, designed to cover and thoroughly analyze a few categories of images that induce a particular stimulus, is limited. We present a narrow domain affective database with positive images, named e-Nature Positive Emotions Photography Database (e-NatPOEM), consisting of 433 high-quality images produced by professional and amateur photographers. A total of 739 participants evaluated them using a web-based tool to input valence-arousal values and a single word describing the evoked feeling. Ratings per image ranged from 36 to 108, median: 57; first/third quartiles: 56/59. 84% of the images presented valence > middle of the scale and arousal < middle of the scale. Words describing the images were classified into semantical groups, being predominant: Peace/tranquility (39% of all words), Beauty (23%), and Positive states (15%). e-NatPOEM is free and publicly available, it is a valid resource for affective research, and presents the potential for clinical use to assist positive emotions promotion.

PLA2 mediates the innate immune response in Asian corn borer, Ostrinia furnacalis.

The eicosanoid signaling pathway mediates insect immune reactions to a wide range of stimuli. This pathway begins with the biosynthesis of arachidonic acid (AA) from the hydrolysis of phospholipids catalyzed by phospholipase A2 (PLA2 ). We report here that the PLA2 inhibitor, dexamethasone (DEX), impaired the innate immune response including nodulation, encapsulation, and melanization in Ostrinia furnacalis larvae, while AA partially reversed these effects of DEX. We cloned a full-length complementary DNA encoding a PLA2 , designated as OfsPLA2 , from O. furnacalis. The open reading frame of OfsPLA2 encodes a 195-amino acid residue protein with a 22-residue signal peptide. Sequence alignment analyses indicated that O. furnacalis PLA2 might be a Group III secretory PLA2 . The highest transcript levels of OfsPLA2 were detected in the fat body, and its transcript levels increased dramatically after infection with Escherichia coli, Micrococcus luteus, or Beauveria bassiana. Recombinant OfsPLA2 significantly induced prophenoloxidase (PPO) activation in larval hemolymph in the presence of Ca2+ and encapsulation of agarose beads. Injection of recombinant OfsPLA2 into larvae resulted in increased transcript levels of attacin, defencin, and moricin-3 genes. Our results demonstrate the involvement of the eicosanoid signaling pathway in the innate immune response of O. furnacalis larvae and provide new information about the roles of O. furnacalis secretory PLA2 in activating PPO and antimicrobial peptide production.

Aligning one’s sights: The pulvinar provides context for visual information processing

The pulvinar (lateral posterior [LP]), like other higher-order thalamic nuclei, receives input from-and sends output to-multiple neocortical structures. In this issue of Neuron, Blot etal. (2021) demonstrate that LP integrates multimodal inputs to put visual information in context.

Reward processing in autism spectrum disorder and psychopathy: a systematic review

AimsEmerging research suggests that aberrant reward processing may underpin much of the social dysfunction we see in psychiatric disorders. Two conditions associated with marked social dysfunction are Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and Psychopathy. However, no review to date has directly contrasted reward processing in both conditions and incorporated literature on social and non-social rewards. This systematic review aims to: (i) identify and compare reward processing abnormalities in ASD and Psychopathy as demonstrated in task-based functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies; and (ii) identify correlations between fMRI reward processing abnormalities and manifested symptoms, with a focus on those giving rise to social dysfunction.MethodThe electronic databases PubMed, PsycINFO and EMBASE were searched to identify studies satisfying the following criteria: (i) a validated measure was used to assess ASD or Psychopathy; (ii) the study was published in an English language peer review journal; (iii) the age of participants was 18 years or older; (iv) individuals participated in a reward-based experimental paradigm; and (v) the response to the reward was measure using fMRI.ResultA total of 12 articles were identified that satisfied inclusion criteria. Six studies examined reward processing in ASD and six studies examined reward processing in Psychopathy. All studies in both conditions indicated some degree of abnormal reward-related neural response. The most replicated findings were aberrant responses in the Ventral Striatum (VS). Autism Spectrum Disorder was typified by VS hypoactivation to social and non-social reward, while Psychopathy was associated with VS hyperactivation in response to non-social reward anticipation. No studies were identified of social reward in Psychopathy.ConclusionThe reported fMRI findings correlate with clinical observations in both conditions. Reduced reward response in ASD to a range of social and non-social stimuli would provide a parsimonious account of the social and non-social deficits that characterise the condition. Enhanced responses to the anticipation of reward in Psychopathy provides an account of the ruthless and destructive pursuit of reward-driven behaviours not inhibited by immoral or aversive signals. If, as the literature suggests, reward circuitry dysfunction plays a role in the development and manifestation of symptoms in both conditions, reward processing and its underlying neural circuitry may represent important targets for the development of novel treatment strategies.

The Incomplete Tyranny of Dynamic Stimuli: Gaze Similarity Predicts Response Similarity in Screen-Captured Instructional Videos.

Although eye tracking has been used extensively to assess cognitions for static stimuli, recent research suggests that the link between gaze and cognition may be more tenuous for dynamic stimuli such as videos. Part of the difficulty in convincingly linking gaze with cognition is that in dynamic stimuli, gaze position is strongly influenced by exogenous cues such as object motion. However, tests of the gaze-cognition link in dynamic stimuli have been done on only a limited range of stimuli often characterized by highly organized motion. Also, analyses of cognitive contrasts between participants have been mostly been limited to categorical contrasts among small numbers of participants that may have limited the power to observe more subtle influences. We, therefore, tested for cognitive influences on gaze for screen-captured instructional videos, the contents of which participants were tested on. Between-participant scanpath similarity predicted between-participant similarity in responses on test questions, but with imperfect consistency across videos. We also observed that basic gaze parameters and measures of attention to centers of interest only inconsistently predicted learning, and that correlations between gaze and centers of interest defined by other-participant gaze and cursor movement did not predict learning. It, therefore, appears that the search for eye movement indices of cognition during dynamic naturalistic stimuli may be fruitful, but we also agree that the tyranny of dynamic stimuli is real, and that links between eye movements and cognition are highly dependent on task and stimulus properties.

Sensor Array Complexity and Analytical Capability

Introduction Chemical sensors are generally associated with tasks involving detection of chemical stimuli while conventional analytical laboratory instruments are associated with analysis of chemical mixtures. While sensing tasks may not necessarily be perceived as involving chemical mixture analysis and evaluated as such, there is always an underlying analytical context in any sensing problem. This context becomes progressively more important as the complexity of chemical environment in which the sensing task is to be conducted increases, through both the number of potential intereferents as well as uncertainty regarding the composition of the chemical background.Design of individual sensors can be reasonably predicated on maximizing the sensitivity and selectivity of a narrowly-scoped chemical stimulus against expected backgrounds. However, as one may expect, design considerations can become significantly more complicated for systems based on sensor arrays. Arrays consisting of sensors that exhibit diverse, partially-selective response to a wide range of chemical stimuli allow, in theory, selective detection of a range of chemical stimuli against more complex backgrounds. [1] This is generally supported by analogy to biological olfaction as well as experimental work over the past few decades. Intuitively, a clear consequence of moving towards applications involving more complex and uncertain sensing tasks is a requirement that the system become less “sensor-like” and more “instrument-like.” A significant challenge in sensor array design has been that these concepts are not well-understood in a quantitative and device-agnostic fashion, making it difficult appropriately match sensor array and sensing task complexity in a predictable and systematic fashion. This presentation will discuss how analytical capabilities can be characterized on a continuum between simple sensor arrays and classical analytical instruments and the implications for sensor array design and selection. Approach Sensor array capability for determining composition of fixed, finite domains of independent chemical stimuli can be expressed and predicted using information-theoretic measures and knowledge of individual chemical response functions for each chemical stimulus/sensor pair. [2-4] Moving towards expression of more general-purpose analytical capability (i.e. dynamic, high-dimensional domains of independent chemical stimuli) requires a shift from consideration of the span of specific chemical stimuli to one of the span of molecular parameters probed by the sensor technology. Sensor array capability for addressing generalized chemical analysis problems can then be expressed in terms of the adjacency in molecular parameter space induced by the underlying response mechanism of a sensor technology and the manner in which specific sensor array configurations induce particular array sensitivities across this same domain of molecular parameters. Hypothetical sensor systems based on optical detection and chemisorption are used to illustrate these concepts. In particular, this framework allows consideration of the manner in which sensor arrays and laboratory instruments occupy a continuum of complexity with which they interact with the chemical environment. Conclusions This work demonstrates the value in developing improved first-principles models of sensor response grounded in molecular parameters rather than specific chemical stimuli. Such an understanding allows expression and prediction of the extent to which a sensor array offers “instrument like” general purpose capability as opposed to narrowly scoped sensing tasks. The complexity of a given sensor technology’s interaction with the chemical environment ultimately provides a limit to the complexity of chemical sensing tasks that are addressable by sensor arrays based on this technology. Considering these aspects of chemical sensor array design allows more reliable selection and design of sensor arrays for complex, real-world applications.

Acceleration of Trichinella spiralis worm expulsion by leukotriene B4 receptor binding inhibition.

Helminth infection typically induces a Th2 inflammatory response that is characterized by eosinophilia, high levels of IgE and mast cells. LTB4 is generated from innate immune cells, such as neutrophils, macrophages and mast cells, in response to a range of stimuli. It mainly acts on myeloid leukocytes, inducing the activation of integrins, adhesion to endothelium walls, and chemotaxis. The objective of the present study was to determine the role of the LTB4 receptor in Trichinella spiralis expulsion. We treated mice with the LTB4 receptor antagonist before infection with T.spiralis. We observed that the number of mast cells and worm infection decreased following treatment with the BLT antagonist during the intestinal phase. We also demonstrated that blocking the LTB4 receptor inhibited neutrophil and eosinophil infiltration. Further studies are required to investigate the specific mechanism of mast cell number decrease and worm infection and the in vitro interactions between LTB4 and worm expulsion.

Optimizing Long-term Outcomes of Exposure for Chronic Primary Pain from the Lens of Learning Theory

Exposure in vivo is a theory-driven and widely used treatment to tackle functional disability in people with chronic primary pain. Exposure is quite effective; yet, in line with exposure outcomes for anxiety disorders, a number of patients may not profit from it, or relapse. In this focus article, we critically reflect on the current exposure protocols in chronic primary pain, and provide recommendations on how to optimize them. We propose several adaptations that are expected to strengthen inhibitory learning and/or retrieval of the extinction memory, thus likely decreasing relapse. We summarize the limited, but emerging experimental data in the pain domain, and draw parallels with experimental evidence in the anxiety literature. Our reflections and suggestions pertain to the use of the fear hierarchy, reassurance, positive psychology interventions, exposure with a range of stimuli and within different contexts, and the use of safety behaviors during treatment, as well as associating the fear-inducing stimuli with novel outcomes. In addition, we reflect on the importance of specifically tackling (the return of) pain-related avoidance behavior with techniques such as disentangling fear from avoidance and reinforcing approach behaviors. Finally, we discuss challenges in the clinical application of exposure to improve functioning in chronic primary pain and possible avenues for future research. PerspectiveInspired by recent advances in learning theory and its applications on the treatment of anxiety disorders, we reflect on the delivery of exposure treatment for chronic primary pain and propose strategies to improve its long-term outcomes.

Targeting 2-arachidonoylglycerol signalling in the neurobiology and treatment of depression.

The endocannabinoid 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) is an atypical neurotransmitter synthesized on demand in response to a wide range of stimuli, including exposure to stress. Through the activation of cannabinoid receptors, 2-AG can interfere with excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmission in different brain regions and modulate behavioural, endocrine and emotional components of the stress response. Exposure to chronic or intense unpredictable stress predisposes to maladaptive behaviour and is one of the main risk factors involved in developing mood disorders, such as major depressive disorder (MDD). In this review, we describe the molecular mechanisms involved in 2-AG signalling in the brain of healthy and stressed animals and discuss how such mechanisms could modulate stress adaptation and susceptibility to depression. Furthermore, we review preclinical evidence indicating that the pharmacological modulation of 2-AG signalling stands as a potential new therapeutic target in treating MDD. Particular emphasis is given to the pharmacological augmentation of 2-AG levels by monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL) inhibitors and the modulation of CB2 receptors.

Properties and Applications of Stimuli-Responsive Diacetylenes

The topochemical reactivity of diacetylene monomers has long been established and involves the 1,4-addition polymerization reaction. This reaction is governed by well-defined parameters that allow the synthesis of diacetylene polymers. Polydiacetylenes are conjugated polymers that display unique colorimetric and fluorescent transitions when they are exposed to a range of stimuli, allowing them to be easily exploited in biosensors, chemosensors, and radiochromic dosimeters. In this review, we summarize recent work on polydiacetylene systems, focusing on examples involving 10,12-pentacosadiynoic acid (PCDA) that can be structured as polymerized vesicles, films, gels, and powders. Synthetic derivatives of PCDA are also reviewed, along with the effect of incorporating guest molecules to a diacetylene system and establishing the important relationship between reversible thermochromism and noncovalent interactions.

Parallel ascending spinal pathways for affective touch and pain

Each day we experience myriad somatosensory stimuli: hugs from loved ones, warm showers, a mosquito bite, and sore muscles after a workout. These tactile, thermal, itch, and nociceptive signals are detected by peripheral sensory neuron terminals distributed throughout our body, propagated into the spinal cord, and then transmitted to the brain through ascending spinal pathways. Primary sensory neurons that detect a wide range of somatosensory stimuli have been identified and characterized. In contrast, very little is known about how peripheral signals are integrated and processed within the spinal cord and conveyed to the brain to generate somatosensory perception and behavioral responses. We tackled this question by developing new mouse genetic tools to define projection neuron (PN) subsets of the anterolateral pathway, a major ascending spinal cord pathway, and combining these new tools with advanced anatomical, physiological, and behavioral approaches. We found that Gpr83+ PNs, a newly identified subset of spinal cord output neurons, and Tacr1+ PNs are largely non-overlapping populations that innervate distinct sets of subnuclei within the lateral parabrachial nucleus (PBNL) of the pons in a zonally segregated manner. In addition, Gpr83+ PNs are highly sensitive to cutaneous mechanical stimuli, receive strong synaptic inputs from primary mechanosensory neurons, and convey tactile information bilaterally to the PBNL in a non-topographically organized manner. Remarkably, Gpr83+ mechanosensory limb of the anterolateral pathway controls behaviors associated with different hedonic values (appetitive or aversive) in a scalable manner. Our study reveals a dedicated spinal cord output pathway that conveys affective touch signals to the brain as well as parallel ascending circuit modules that cooperate to convey tactile, thermal and noxious cutaneous signals from the spinal cord to the brain. Furthermore, our study provides an insight into the new therapeutic opportunities for developing treatments for neurological disorders associated with pain and affective touch. This work was supported by the Alice and Joseph E. Brooks Funds (S.C.), the Blavatnik Biomedical Accelerator Fund (S.C., D.G), NIH grants NS097344 and AT011447 (D.G.), AR063772 (S.R.), NS096705 (H.K.), the Bertarelli Foundation (D.G.), The Hock E. Tan and Lisa Yang Center for Autism Research at Harvard University (D.G.) and the Edward R. and Anne G. Lefler Center for Neurodegenerative Disorders (D.G). D.G. is an investigator of the Howard Hughes Medical Institute.

Ecomorphology and Morphological Diversity of Trigeminal Nerve‐mediated Somatosensation in Sauropsids

Understanding the morphology of tissues mediating sensory perception is essential to understanding organismal behavior. Cranial somatosensation in living reptiles requires dense innervation of the mandibles by the trigeminal nerve to receive and discriminate between the range of stimuli experienced during sensory behaviors including prey acquisition, feeding, and navigation. Morphological diversity of both the soft tissue and osteological trigeminal system is unexplored across reptiles, and thus relationships between form and function are unknown. Additionally, inferences of facial sensation in extinct vertebrates are often loosely based on qualitative descriptions of bony features of the trigeminal system. Using CT and hand-measured data, we explore morphometric relationships between and among soft tissue (i.e., trigeminal ganglion, inferior alveolar nerve, terminal sensors) and osteological (i.e., trigeminal fossa, inferior alveolar canal, rostral foramina) trigeminal structures of extant representatives from each major clade of sauropsids with diverse sensory strategies. Exploring the trigeminal mandibular division, we find relatively larger trigeminal structures in crocodylians than most birds and lepidosaurs, implying differing levels of sensory ability among taxa. We show canal branching patterns reflect sensory ecologies as well, with only tactile-foraging taxa exhibiting dendritic canals. Finally, we identify phylogenetic and ecologic factors influencing osteological correlate utility and predict sensory ecologies of extinct reptiles, supporting a trend of increasing trigeminal sensation along the crocodylian line. Overall, these findings describe some of the diversity of the reptilian trigeminal system and establish evolutionary patterns of reptile trigeminal ecomorphology.

Impact of solar radiation on chemical structure and micromechanical properties of cellulose-based humidity-sensing material Cottonid

Renewable and environmentally responsive materials are an energy- and resource-efficient approach in terms of civil engineering applications, e.g. as so-called smart building skins. To evaluate the influence of different environmental stimuli, like humidity or solar radiation, on the long-term actuation behavior and mechanical robustness of these materials, it is necessary to precisely characterize the magnitude and range of stimuli that trigger reactions and the resulting kinetics of a material, respectively, with suitable testing equipment and techniques. The overall aim is to correlate actuation potential and mechanical properties with process- or application-oriented parameters in terms of demand-oriented stimuli-responsive element production. In this study, the impact of solar radiation as environmental trigger on the cellulose-based humidity-sensing material Cottonid, which is a promising candidate for adaptive and autonomously moving elements, was investigated. For simulating solar radiation in the lab, specimens were exposed to short-wavelength blue light as well as a standardized artificial solar irradiation (CIE Solar ID65) in long-term aging experiments. Photodegradation behavior was analyzed by Fourier-transform infrared as well as electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy measurements to assess changes in Cottonid’s chemical composition. Subsequently, changes in micromechanical properties on the respective specimens’ surface were investigated with roughness measurements and ultra-micro-hardness tests to characterize variations in stiffness distribution in comparison to the initial condition. Also, thermal effects during long-term aging were considered and contrasted to pure radiative effects. In addition, to investigate the influence of process-related parameters on Cottonid’s humidity-driven deformation behavior, actuation tests were performed in an alternating climate chamber using a customized specimen holder, instrumented with digital image correlation (DIC). DIC was used for precise actuation strain measurements to comparatively evaluate different influences on the material’s sorption behavior. The infrared absorbance spectra of different aging states of irradiated Cottonid indicate oxidative stress on the surface compared to unaged samples. These findings differ under pure thermal loads. EPR spectra could corroborate these findings as radicals were detected, which were attributed to oxidation processes. Instrumented actuation experiments revealed the influence of processing-related parameters on the sorption behavior of the tested and structurally optimized Cottonid variant. Experimental data supports the definition of an optimal process window for stimuli-responsive element production. Based on these results, tailor-made functional materials shall be generated in the future where stimuli-responsiveness can be adjusted through the manufacturing process.

Endocannabinoid-mediated neuromodulation in the main olfactory bulb at the interface of environmental stimuli and central neural processing.

The olfactory system has become an important functional gateway to understand and analyze neuromodulation since olfactory dysfunction and deficits have emerged as prodromal and, at other times, as first symptoms of many of neurodegenerative, neuropsychiatric and communication disorders. Considering olfactory dysfunction as outcome of altered, damaged and/or inefficient olfactory processing, in the current review, we analyze how olfactory processing interacts with the endocannabinoid signaling system. In the human body, endocannabinoid synthesis is a natural and on-demand response to a wide range of physiological and environmental stimuli. Our current understanding of the response dynamics of the endocannabinoid system is based in large part on research advances in limbic system areas, such as the hippocampus and the amygdala. Functional interactions of this signaling system with olfactory processing and associated pathways are just emerging but appear to grow rapidly with multidimensional approaches. Recent work analyzing the crystal structure of endocannabinoid receptors bound to their agonists in a signaling complex has opened avenues for developing specific therapeutic drugs that could help with neuroinflammation, neurodegeneration, and alleviation/reduction of pain. We discuss the role of endocannabinoids as signaling molecules in the olfactory system and the relevance of the endocannabinoid system for synaptic plasticity.

Design of Personalized Wearable Haptic Interfaces to Account for Fingertip Size and shape.

The size and shape of fingertips vary significantly across humans, making it challenging to design wearable fingertip interfaces suitable for everyone. Although deemed important, this issue has often been neglected due to the difficulty of customizing devices for each different user. This article presents an innovative approach for automatically adapting the hardware design of a wearable haptic interface for a given user. We consider a three-DoF fingertip cutaneous device, composed of a static body and a mobile platform linked by three articulated legs. The mobile platform is capable of making and breaking contact with the finger pulp and re-angle to replicate contacts with arbitrarily-oriented surfaces. We analyze the performance of this device as a function of its main geometrical dimensions. Then, starting from the user's fingertip characteristics, we define a numerical procedure that best adapts the dimension of the device to: (i) maximize the range of renderable haptic stimuli; (ii) avoid unwanted contacts between the device and the skin; (iii) avoid singular configurations; and (iv) minimize the device encumbrance and weight. Together with the mechanical analysis and evaluation of the adapted design, we present a MATLAB script that calculates the device dimensions customized for a target fingertip as well as an online CAD utility for generating a ready-to-print STL file of the personalized design.

An age-related positivity effect in semantic true memory but not false memory.

The positivity effect in older adults (i.e., over 60 years old) has been demonstrated across a wide range of stimuli with a wide range of experimental paradigms that are designed to assess memory; however, very little research has investigated the positivity effect in semantic memory. The Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) paradigm is one of the best procedures to investigate age-related changes in the key cognitive mechanisms of semantic memory, including associative activation and gist extraction. Here we used the DRM paradigm to investigate whether mood, particularly positive mood, at the time of encoding would influence age-related differences in semantic memory in younger and older adults. Participants were induced into a positive, negative, or neutral mood and were then presented with word lists consisting of positive, negative, or neutral words. Older relative to younger adults exhibited higher true recognition for positive over negative words, but this pattern was not shown in false recognition. When participants were induced in positive moods, older adults exhibited more false recognition than did young adults. The age-related difference in false recognition, however, had nothing to do with the valence of information. Taken together, these findings support Socioemotional Selectivity Theory, a life span theory of motivation, and Fuzzy-Trace Theory, a dual-process theory of false memory, as well as the assumptions regarding the impact of mood on information processing. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Regulatory B cells, A to Z.

B cells play a central role in the immune system through the production of antibodies. During the past two decades, it has become increasingly clear that B cells also have the capacity to regulate immune responses through mechanisms that extend beyond antibody production. Several types of human and murine regulatory B cells have been reported that suppress inflammatory responses in autoimmune disease, allergy, infection, transplantation, and cancer. Key suppressive molecules associated with regulatory B-cell function include the cytokines IL-10, IL-35, and TGF-β as well as cell membrane-bound molecules such as programmed death-ligand 1, CD39, CD73, and aryl hydrocarbon receptor. Regulatory B cells can be induced by a range of different stimuli, including microbial products such as TLR4 or TLR9 ligands, inflammatory cytokines such as IL-6, IL-1β, and IFN-α, as well as CD40 ligation. This review provides an overview of our current knowledge on regulatory B cells. We discuss different types of regulatory B cells, the mechanisms through which they exert their regulatory functions, factors that lead to induction of regulatory B cells and their role in the alteration of inflammatory responses in different diseases.

The effect of luminance on the perception of small color differences

AbstractThe objectives of this study were two‐fold; to determine how variations in practical illuminance range (from ~300 to ~2300 lx) affect the perception of suprathreshold small color differences for a range of object stimuli across the color space, and to investigate the role of variations in luminance on intra‐ and inter‐observer variability in repeated psychophysical trials. STRESS index and conventional statistical methods suggest the presence of a significant difference between visual responses for large changes in luminance. Inter‐ and intra‐observer variability also varied according to luminance. Calculated color differences based on recent CAM models show good agreement with visual results over the luminance range examined.