Randomized Response Technique Research Articles

Randomized Response Estimates for the 12‐Month Prevalence of Cognitive‐Enhancing Drug Use in University Students

To estimate the 12-month prevalence of cognitive-enhancing drug use. Paper-and-pencil questionnaire that used the randomized response technique. University in Mainz, Germany. A total of 2569 university students who completed the questionnaire. An anonymous, specialized questionnaire that used the randomized response technique was distributed to students at the beginning of classes and was collected afterward. From the responses, we calculated the prevalence of students taking drugs only to improve their cognitive performance and not to treat underlying mental disorders such as attention-deficit-hyperactivity disorder, depression, and sleep disorders. The estimated 12-month prevalence of using cognitive-enhancing drugs was 20%. Prevalence varied by sex (male 23.7%, female 17.0%), field of study (highest in students studying sports-related fields, 25.4%), and semester (first semester 24.3%, beyond first semester 16.7%). To our knowledge, this is the first time that the randomized response technique has been used to survey students about cognitive-enhancing drug use. Using the randomized response technique, our questionnaire provided data that showed a high 12-month prevalence of cognitive-enhancing drug use in German university students. Our study suggests that other direct survey techniques have underestimated the use of these drugs. Drug prevention programs need to be established at universities to address this issue.

Eliciting Private Information with Noise: The Case of Randomized Response

The paper formalizes Warner’s (1965) randomized response technique (RRT) as a game and implements it experimentally, thus linking game theoretic approaches to randomness in communication with survey practice in the field and a novel implementation in the lab. As predicted by our model and in line with Warner, the frequency of truthful responses is significantly higher with randomization than without. The model predicts that randomization weakly improves information elicitation, as measured in terms of mutual information, although, surprisingly, not always by RRT inducing truth-telling. Contrary to this prediction, randomization significantly reduces the elicited information in our experiment.

Randomized Response Group Testing Model

In this article, we propose randomized response–group testing (RR-GT) models. Randomized response technique and the group testing method have long been recognized as sampling schemes that can provide substantial benefits. In order to obtain both confidentiality and economic benefits from a sensitive issue survey sampling, we incorporate the group testing method into the most popular two randomized response models, which are Warner's RR model and unrelated question RR model. Empirical comparisons are provided and discussed.

BAYESIAN ESTIMATION OF POPULATION PROPORTION IN KIM AND WARDE MIXED RANDOMIZED RESPONSE TECHNIQUE

In this study, we have developed the Bayesian estimator of the population proportion of a sensitive characteristic when data are obtained through the Randomized Response Technique (RRT) proposed by Kim and Warde (2005). Superiority of the Bayesian estimators is established for a wide range of the values of the population proportion using simple Beta prior information. It is observed that Bayesian estimators are better than the usual Maximum Likelihood Estimator (MLE) for small as well as moderate samples. The Proposed estimator is also compared with the Warner (1965), Kim and warde (2005) and Kim et al. (2006) estimators.

Estimating at least seven measures of qualitative variables from a single sample using randomized response technique

In this paper, like a magician can show several birds flying out of an empty basket, we show that at least seven parameters of interest to a social scientist can be estimated from a single sample and one response from each respondent. A real survey data application is given.

Novel approach for quantifying illegal bushmeat consumption reveals high consumption of protected species in Madagascar

AbstractInformation on the extent of bushmeat hunting is needed to assess the likely impact on hunted species, to provide information on the opportunity cost to local people of conservation, and to judge the efficacy of interventions at reducing pressure. However, where hunting is illegal, or socially unacceptable, respondents may not answer honestly to direct questions about hunting or consumption of bushmeat. We adapted a specialized method for investigating sensitive behaviours (the randomized response technique, RRT) and questioned 1,851 people in Madagascar about their consumption of six species, using either RRT or direct questions. For most species at most sites RRT and direct questions returned similar estimates of the proportion of the population who had consumed bushmeat in the previous year. However, RRT resulted in significantly higher estimates of bushmeat consumption in communities surrounding a protected area, where conservation activities made such questions sensitive. RRT has been predominately used in Europe and the USA; we demonstrate that it can provide a valuable approach for studying rule-breaking among people with poor literacy in low income countries. Between 12 and 33% of people across our sites had eaten brown lemur (Eulemur spp.), and 12–29% had eaten sifaka (Propithecus spp.) in the previous year. These results add to the growing body of evidence that hunting of protected species in Madagascar is a serious problem requiring urgent action. Conservation interventions to tackle bushmeat hunting will make questions about hunting or consumption more sensitive, increasing the need for researchers to use appropriate approaches for asking sensitive questions.

An extension of the standardized randomized response technique to a multi-stage setup

If nonresponse and/or untruthful answering mechanisms occur, analyzing only the available cases may substantially weaken the validity of sample results. The paper starts with a reference to strategies of empirical social researchers related to respondent cooperation in surveys embedding the statistical techniques of randomized response in this framework. Further, multi-stage randomized response techniques are incorporated into the standardized randomized response technique for estimating proportions. In addition to already existing questioning designs of this family of methods, this generalization includes also several (in particular: two-stage) techniques that have not been published before. The statistical properties of this generalized design are discussed for all probability sampling designs. Further, the efficiency of the model is presented as a function of privacy protection. Hence, it can be shown that not one multi-stage design of this family at the same level of privacy protection can theoretically be more efficient than its one-stage basic version.

Use of Two Decks of Cards in Randomized Response Techniques for Complex Survey Designs

The randomized response (RR) technique with two decks of cards proposed by Odumade and Singh (2009) can always be made more efficient than the RR techniques proposed by Warner (1965), Mangat and Singh (1990), and Mangat (1994) by adjusting the proportion of cards in the decks. The proposed method of Odumade and Singh (2009) is limited to simple random sampling with replacement (SRSWR) sampling only. In this article, generalization of Odumade and Singh strategy is provided for complex survey designs and a wider class of estimators. The results of Odumade and Singh (2009) can be derived from the proposed method as a special case.

Estimation of the Mean of a Sensitive Variable in the Presence of Auxiliary Information

Sousa et al. (2010) introduced a ratio estimator for the mean of a sensitive variable and showed that this estimator performs better than the ordinary mean estimator based on a randomized response technique (RRT). In this article, we introduce a regression estimator that performs better than the ratio estimator even for modest correlation between the primary and the auxiliary variables. The underlying assumption is that the primary variable is sensitive in nature but a non sensitive auxiliary variable exists that is positively correlated with the primary variable. Expressions for the Bias and MSE (Mean Square Error) are derived based on the first order of approximation. It is shown that the proposed regression estimator performs better than the ratio estimator and the ordinary RRT mean estimator (that does not utilize the auxiliary information). We also consider a generalized regression-cum-ratio estimator that has even smaller MSE. An extensive simulation study is presented to evaluate the performances of the proposed estimators in relation to other estimators in the study. The procedure is also applied to some financial data: purchase orders (a sensitive variable) and gross turnover (a non sensitive variable) in 2009 for a population of 5,336 companies in Portugal from a survey on Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) usage.

Estimating the prevalence of xenophobia and anti-Semitism in Germany: A comparison of randomized response and direct questioning

An experimental CATI-survey (N=2041), asking sensitive questions about xenophobia and anti-Semitism in Germany, was conducted to compare the randomized response technique (RRT) and the direct questioning technique. Unlike the vast majority of RRT surveys measuring the prevalence of socially undesirable behaviors, only few studies have explored the effectiveness of the RRT with respect to the disclosure of socially undesirable opinions. Results suggest that the RRT is an effective method eliciting more socially undesirable opinions and yielding more valid prevalence estimates of xenophobia and anti-Semitism than direct questioning (‘more-is-better’ assumption). Furthermore, the results indicate that with increasing topic sensitivity, the benefits of using the RRT also increase. Finally, adapted logistic regression analyses show that several covariates such as education and generalized trust are related to the likelihood of being prejudiced towards foreigners and Jews.

Unbiased Estimation of a Sensitive Proportion in General Sampling by Three Nonrandomized Response Schemes

Contrasting with well-publicized randomized response (RR) techniques (RRT) claimed to be useful in estimating the proportion of people bearing a sensitive characteristic in a given community, recently nonrandomized response (NRR) techniques (NRRT) are emerging. As with most early RRTs, the NRRTs to date are applied exclusively to samples selected by simple random sampling (SRS) with replacement (SRSWR) scheme alone. This article shows how three NRR schemes in vogue may be used in unbiased estimation even when a sample may be selected following a general scheme. The current literature stresses maximum likelihood estimation (MLE) rather than unbiased estimation (UE) when these NRR schemes are employed.

How Much do Chinese Applicants Fake?

More and more organizations have applicants who come from different cultural backgrounds, and according to new research, these cultural backgrounds matter for applicants' self‐presentational behavior (i.e., faking). If applicants come from China, can organizations assume that they will present themselves modestly, as suggested by Chinese norms? Or should organizations assume that there will be much self‐presentational behavior due to the high unemployment rate, at least among Chinese graduates? To answer this question, we obtained data from 307 Chinese applicants on their self‐presentational behavior, using the randomized response technique to ensure anonymity. We compared these data with similar data sets from the United States, Switzerland, and China. Contrary to the proposed modesty hypothesis in Chinese samples, perhaps due to high unemployment, self‐presentation was as prevalent in Chinese samples as in American samples.

Making Use of “Benford’s Law” for the Randomized Response Technique

In this article, “Benford’s law” is applied to the “randomized response technique” (RRT) to increase the validity of answers to sensitive questions. Using the Newcomb–Benford distribution as a randomizing device has several advantages. It is easy to explain and follow the procedure, as no physical device such as a coin or a dice is necessary and the method guarantees full anonymity. As is well known, the price for the anonymity of the RRT is a decrease in the efficiency of the estimator. However, because of the subjective overestimation of certain numbers (Benford illusion), the conflict between the variance of the estimates and the degree of anonymity is less pronounced compared to other RRT methods. The suggested RRT variant has the potential to improve the efficiency of the estimator. Moreover, the assumption is that this method works well with self-administered questionnaires.

Eliciting information on sensitive matters without inviting respondents’ ire

It is now part of folklore that eliciting information on sensitive matters is riddled with nonresponse or untruthful response. Typically respondents fear that the traditional methods based on direct response do not protect their privacy. This fear results in nonresponse or untruthful response. We introduce in this article ingenious methods based on Randomized Response techniques. Such methods instill confidence in the respondent to furnish truthful answers to queries even on sensitive matters. We will also see how to carry out statistical inference using these methods.

Applicants’ Self-Presentational Behavior

This study contributes to the literature on self-presentation by comparing recruiters’ expectations about applicants’ self-presentational behaviors in personnel selection settings to applicants’ actual use of these behaviors. Recruiters (N = 51) rated the perceived appropriateness of 24 self-presentational behaviors. In addition, the prevalence of these behaviors was separately assessed in two subsamples of applicants (N1 = 416 and N2 = 88) with the randomized response technique. In line with the script concept, the results revealed that recruiters similarly evaluated the appropriateness of specific self-presentational behaviors and that applicants’ general use of these behaviors corresponded to recruiters’ shared expectations. The findings indicate that applicants who use strategic self-presentational behaviors may just be trying to fulfill situational requirements.

Two-valued response technique of polychotomous sensitive question

The randomized response (RR) technique is an effective survey method when collecting sensitive information. This paper proposes a new non-randomized response model for survey sampling with polychotomous sensitive questions: Two-valued response technique. The proportion of the sensitive attribute and its estimator’s variance are estimated under the simple random sampling without replacement and with replacement designs. The relation between the efficiency and the protection of privacy is discussed. The result indicates that the efficiency is in conflict with protection of privacy in the new proposed model, which is the same as that in the RR technique, but the new technique has better characteristics in sociological practice aspects than the RR technique, because it is of low cost, saving time and being operated easily.

Applicants' Self‐presentational Behavior across Cultures: Less self‐presentation in Switzerland and Iceland than in the United States

Do US findings on applicants' self‐presentational behavior generalize to other countries? We argue that applicants in some countries are less motivated to present themselves favorably than applicants in others because countries vary in their unemployment rate (leading to differences in competition between job applicants) and their endorsement of modesty values, influencing their beliefs regarding self‐presentation. Using the randomized response technique, we obtained prevalence data on applicants' self‐presentational behavior from Iceland and Switzerland and compared them with previously published US results. The prevalence rates of self‐presentational behavior were fairly comparable in Iceland and Switzerland but significantly lower than in the United States. These results caution against using the same hiring strategy for all applicants from different cultures.

Asking Sensitive Questions Using the Crosswise Model: An Experimental Survey Measuring Plagiarism

Yu, Tian, and Tang (2008) proposed two new techniques for asking questions on sensitive topics in population surveys: the triangular model (TM) and the crosswise model (CM). The two models can be used as alternatives to the well-known randomized response technique (RRT) and are meant to overcome some of the drawbacks of the RRT. Although Yu, Tian, and Tang provide a promising theoretical analysis of the proposed models, they did not test them. We therefore provide results from an experimental survey in which the crosswise model was implemented and compared to direct questioning. To our knowledge, this is the first empirical evaluation of the crosswise model. We focused on the crosswise model because it seems better suited than the triangular model to overcome the self-protective “no” bias observed for the RRT. This paper-and-pencil survey on plagiarism was administered to Swiss and German students in university classrooms. Results suggest that the CM is a promising data-collection instrument eliciting more socially undesirable answers than direct questioning.

Plagiarism in Student Papers: Prevalence Estimates Using Special Techniques for Sensitive Questions

Summary This article evaluates three different questioning techniques for measuring the prevalence of plagiarism in student papers: the randomized response technique (RRT), the item count technique (ICT), and the crosswise model (CM). In three independent experimental surveys with Swiss and German university students as subjects (two web surveys and a survey using paper and- pencil questionnaires in a classroom setting), each of the three techniques is compared to direct questioning and evaluated based on the “more-is-better” assumption. According to our results the RRT and the ICT failed to reduce social desirability bias in self-reports of plagiarism. In contrast, the CM was more successful in eliciting a significantly higher rate of reported sensitive behavior than direct questioning. One reason for the success of the CM, we believe, is that it overcomes the “self-protective no” bias known from the RRT (and which may also be a potential problem in the ICT).We find rates of up to 22 percent of students who declared that they ever intentionally adopted a passage from someone else’s work without citing it. Severe plagiarism such as handing in someone else’s paper as one’s own, however, seems to be less frequent with rates of about 1 to 2 percent.

Anonymity in the dictator game revisited

Giving in the dictator game has often been interpreted as evidence of other-regarding preferences. We suspect that giving is determined by subjects’ attempts to appear fair in the eyes of recipients and the experimenter. Therefore, we investigate behavior in the dictator game by using the randomized response technique to increase anonymity. Overall, 290 subjects participated in two experiments. The results demonstrate that the randomized response technique reduces giving to negligible amounts compared to the standard double blind condition. Thus, our results suggest that individuals closely follow egoistic motives in the dictator game when anonymity is convincingly implemented.