Radish Crops Research Articles

Effect of biochar and nitrogen on soil characteristics, growth and yield of radish (Raphanus sativus L.) at Paklihawa, Rupandehi condition of Nepal

An experiment on effect of biochar and nitrogen on soil characteristics, growth and yield of radish (Raphanus sativus L.) was conducted at Institute of Agriculture and Animal Science (IAAS), Paklihawa, Rupandehi, from November 2019 to February 2020. The experiment was laid in Randomized Complete Block Design with two factors: nitrogen and biochar, each factor having four levels (biochar: 0 t/ha, 5 t/ha, 10 t/ha and 15 t/ha and nitrogen: 0 kg/ha, 50 kg/ha, 100 kg/ha, 200 kg/ha), resulting in sixteen treatment combinations. Biochar application was found to be effective in improving soil bulk density, pH, soil organic matter and soil nitrogen and potassium content. Application of nitrogen fertilizer (200 kg/ha) and biochar (15 t/ha) alone, and in combination, showed significantly higher root dry matter (15.83 gm, 16.63 gm and 20.57 gm), biological yield (80 t/ha, 63.75 t/ha, and 95.75) and root yield (26.74 t/ha, 24.06 t/ha and 30.32 t/ha). In comparison to the sole effects of the highest dose of nitrogen fertilizer (200 kg/ha) and the highest dose of biochar (15 t/ha), their combined application showed the increased yield in radish root by 13.38% and 26.01%, respectively, indicating that the combined effect of biochar and nitrogen is more productive for the growth and yield in radish crop as compared to the sole effect of nitrogen and biochar.

Comparing cotyledon, leaf and root resistance to downy mildew in radish (Raphanus sativus L.)

Radish downy mildew (DM) caused by the oomycete Hyaloperonospora brassicae f. sp. raphani is a serious problem in radish crop, an edible root vegetable of the Brassicaceae family. The objective of this research was to assess radish germplasm for DM resistance and to evaluate the response of different radish organs to the disease under controlled conditions. Forty-four radish accessions were inoculated at cotyledons and true-leaves with H. brassicae isolate R10, collected in cotyledons of field plants. The roots were tested with isolates R10 and R6, this last one collected in roots of field radish. DM symptoms varied with the radish genotype and plant organ analysed. Twenty-seven resistant and partially resistant accessions were identified in all plant stages and are promising sources of resistance to DM, namely 16 commercial varieties, 10 breeding lines, and one landrace. A significant correlation was observed between cotyledon and leaf (1st and 2nd leaves) DM resistance, but low and no correlation was found between the resistance of true-leaves or cotyledons and roots, respectively. Cotyledon and leaf evaluation cannot be used to predict root resistance response in radish. However, cotyledon resistance has its own value because non-infected cotyledons will act as a barrier to slow disease progression to true-leaves and roots. Interesting sources of DM resistance were identified that can be used in radish breeding programs.

The vinasse and yellow trap as an alternative in the ecological control of radish (Raphanus sativus L.). A practical approach

The objective was to determine the dose for whitefly control. The methodology is based on applied re-search, so the Completely Randomized Block Design was implemented, consisting of 3 blocks and 5 treatments which were: T1 0, T2 10, T3 20, T4 30 and T5 with 40 mL of vinasse/1.6 m2, these were applied from the first week to the fourth week with doses of 10 mL of vinasse/32 mL of water/week/1.6 m2. The physical characteristics of the crop, the number of flies trapped in the trap and the percentage of damage to the radish crop were also evaluated and statistically evaluated using the analysis of variance and Duncan's statistical method. It was determined that the T5 treatment with 40 mL/1.6m2 excelled in the most optimal results, which were the following values: Crops affected:31.67 %, whiteflies per trap:7, crop size: 26.58 cm, plant weight:37.26 g, agricultural yield:7.008 t/ha and bulb diameter:3.15 cm. It is concluded that the application of vinasse is an agro ecological alternative for whitefly control, with the best results being observed with treatment T5.

Spatial arrangements between rows x radish plants

Given the importance of this crop and the need for phytotechnical knowledge about the plant spatial arrangement. The objective of this study was to evaluate the productive parameters of the radish culture when submitted to different spatial arrangements between plants and rows. To achieve this aim, the hybrid cultivar Red Pearl was used as a test in a randomized block experimental design, in a 4 x 6 factorial scheme, with four replications. The factors comprise the combination of crop spacing between “rows” and “plants”. The factor levels correspond to the distances between rows: 8, 16, 24, and 32 cm; and between plants: 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, and 14 cm. Root yield, average root mass, longitudinal and transverse diameters, and non-commercial roots were determined. The data obtained were tabulated to obtain the averages, which were submitted to the Shapiro-Wilk residual normality test, at 5% significance, followed by the analysis of variance. When the residual was normal and the response variable was significant, the data was analyzed using linear regression and the appropriate polynomial model was adjusted to present the results. Statistical analyzes were carried out using the R Software. The results show that there was no interaction between the spacing factors for the analyzed parameters, and the spacing between rows and plants influenced the attributes evaluated independently. The spatial arrangements with lower plant densities provided greater root mass and diameter. The importance of new studies involving fixing the spacing between rows and varying the spacing between plants is suggested to better understand the effect of new spatial arrangements on the productive parameters of the radish crop.

Sensitivity of tuberous roots crops to salinity in a protected environment

Soil salinity has been a limiting barrier for the production of vegetables in protected environments. Thus, the understanding of the sensitivity of species to this stress factor must be explored, seeking better growing conditions. Under the hypothesis that beet and radish crops are sensitive to variations in soil salinity, even at low levels, the objective of this work was to evaluate the development and productivity of these two species in soils with different salinities in a protected environment. The experimental design was completely randomized and treatments were formed by the soil salinity levels, obtained with the application of saline solution (NaCl in water), considering the soil electrical conductivity of 0.36 dS m-1 as low salinity, of 1.05 dS m-1 as moderate salinity and 2.43 dS m-1 as elevated. For all variables analyzed, except for the relative chlorophyll index in beet plants, it was found that the increase in soil salinity resulted in significant development losses of beet and radish plants. Therefore, we concluded that beet and radish crops are sensitive to the variation in soil salinity, even in relatively low concentrations, making these species an unattractive choice for cultivation in systems that present this problem.

Improving Yield of Non-Perennial Crops in the Conditions of Yakutia Using Different Doses of Mineral Fertilizers

Providing sustainable feed supplies is the main condition for the high productivity of the livestock industry. Feed supplies shall meet the needs of farm animals. The application effectiveness of mineral fertilizers is one of the most important factors of technology ensuring the improvement of yield, chemical composition, and nutritional value of feed. The article presents the results of research on the effectiveness of different doses of mineral fertilizers used to improve the yield of non-perennial fodder crops in the conditions of Yakutia. Experiments were held in 2015–2016 in the Moydoch plot of the Khangalassky District. Non-perennial fodder crops were sown on June 1. Sowing was done by drilling with 46 cm inter-row spacing for corn and sunflower, 30 cm for oil radish and sudangrass, and 15 cm for millet. The sowing depth was 4–6 cm for non-perennial fodder crops, and 2–3 cm for oil radish. The experience of application of mineral fertilizers to improve the yield of non-perennial crops has shown to primary affecting factors: the first factor — non-perennial crops variety (corn, sunflower, millet, sudangrass, oil radish), the second factor — mineral fertilizer dose (reference, (NPK)90 kg/ha, (NPK)120 kg/ha of primary nutrient). On average during two years of studies, corn crops have shown the highest fresh yield with mineral fertilizers applied at an NPK120 kg/ha dose of 9.7 t/ha; sunflower — 14.6 t/ha, millet — 6.1 t/ha, oil radish — 12.2 t/ha, and sudangrass — 7.6 t/ha with fertilizers applied at an NPK90 kg/ha dose. NPK120 kg/ha dose of mineral fertilizers ensured high nutrient content in the crops of corn, millet, oil radish, and sudangrass, and NPK90 kg/ha for sunflower. Sunflower and oil radish have shown the best nutritional value from all the studied species of non-perennial fodder crops.

Magnetic Treatment of Irrigation Water and its Influence on Radish (Raphanus sativus) crop: A Green Technology

Implementation of water treatment technologies for poor quality water may help reduce dependency on freshwater. One promising technology among water treatment technologies is magnetic water treatment (MWT). This study was aimed to evaluate the impact of bore water, hard water (1000 ppm) and saline water (electrical conductivity of 3 dS/m) on the plant biometric parameters and the yield of the radish. The water was treated in three stages: electrolysis, de-ionization and magnetization. In the pot culture experiment conducted, leaf length and leaf area index (LAI) was maximum under magnetized bore water treatment which was 22.7 cm and 6.2 compared to all other treatments respectively. The fresh weight (66.2 g) was highest in magnetically treated bore water, which was statistically significant over control. Among bore water treatments, the average yield per plant (48.5 t/ha) was maximum under magnetized bore water over control (43.9t/ha). Overall, the findings suggest that magnetically treated irrigation water positively influences plant growth parameters and the yield of radish.

Silicon and zinc nanoparticles-enriched miscanthus biochar enhanced seed germination, antioxidant defense system, and nutrient status of radish under NaCl stress

Context Soil salinity mitigation with nanoparticles enriched biochar (Bc) can be a better strategy to resolve the uprising threat against food security. Aim The present study was designed to prepare silicon nanoparticles enriched biochar (Si-En-Bc) and zinc nanoparticles enriched biochar (Zn-En-Bc), which may not only reduced the toxic effects of NaCl stress on initial growth of radish crop but also improved its physiology and defensive mechanism. Method Seeds were germinated in pots with six treatments under normal and NaCl stress, (100 mM NaCl), Zn-En-Bc (1% w/w), and Si-En-Bc (1% w/w). Twenty days old seedlings were harvested and their fresh weight and various germination and biochemical parameters were tested. Key results A significant reduction in malondialdehyde (MDA) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) contents was observed with Si-En-Bc + NaCl relative to NaCl stress. It might be due to the significant increase in the antioxidants such as superoxide dismutase (SOD) (42%), ascorbate peroxidase (APX) (38.7%), catalase (CAT) (30.9%) and shoot phenolics (59%) with Si-En-Bc + NaCl over NaCl stress. Application of Zn-En-Bc also caused a maximum increase in root and shoot Zn concentration (76.8 and 54.9%, respectively) under NaCl stress. Conclusions Hence, Si-En-Bc proved to be the best treatment for the radish plant to complete its early growth stage under NaCl stress while Zn-En-Bc not only compensated NaCl stress but also enhanced Zn availability. Implications This study implies that Si-En-Bc or Zn-En-Bc should be applied to the salt affected soil before the crop sowing so seedling can grow under the ameliorative effects of applied amendments. Also, Si-En-Bc or Zn-En-Bc should be tested on a degraded soils at larage scale such as field level.

Beetroot and radish production under different doses of green manures

Green manuring with spontaneous species from Caatinga biome has become an important strategy in production vegetables. One of the great challenges in tuberous vegetables production is to define an optimized quantity that provides a high productive yield with economic efficiency of production system. The objective of this study was to optimize agronomically and economically the production and its components of tuberous crops of beetroot and radish when manured with different amounts of green manures biomass, Merremia aegyptia and Calotropis procera from Caatinga biome, in two cropping seasons. The experimental design was a randomized complete block with five treatments and five replications. Treatments consisted of green manures amounts (16, 26, 36, 46, 56 t ha-1). The maximum agronomic efficiency of beetroot and radish was obtained with incorporation of 49.87 and 39.43 t ha-1 of M. aegyptia and C. procera, respectively, and the production maximum economic efficiency was reached when 36.14 and 36.48 t ha-1, respectively, of biomass of these green manures were added to the soil. The returns rate obtained in beetroot and radish cultivation using the manures optimized amounts were 1.42 and 1.32 reais obtained for each real invested in the production of these tuberous.

Greener production of compost from agricultural biomass residues amended with mule dung for agronomic application

In this study agro-waste (Agwt) was aerobically composted using cow dung (CD) and mule dung (MD). Totally six different sets of compost treatments were prepared, as T1 (Agwt + CD, 1:1), T2 (Agwt + MD, 1:1), T3 (Agwt + CD, 1:3), T4 (Agwt + MD, 1:3), T5 (Agwt + CD, 3:1) and T6 (Agwt + MD, 3:1) in individual containers. All the compost treatments were degraded for 90 days. The organic wastes in the treatment containers were maintained with proper moisture level. All the final composts reached good manural stability and maturity index after 90 days. Among the six treatments, the T2 with Agwt + MD in 1:1 proportion attained a 10:1 C/N ratio and a near neutral pH (7.3). Indigenous microbes isolated and identified from the T2 compost sample showed protease, cellulase, amylase and lipase activities. The germination of Raphanus sativus L. seeds and vigorous plant growth parameters confirmed the non-pathogenic phytotoxic-free nature of finished composts. The radish crops supplied with T2 compost showed healthy tuber growth parameters (16.6 cm width, 35.6 cm length) compared with other treatments. The results from the experiments established that, the composts derived are eco-friendly amendment to plants and it has also improved the soil fertility due to its stability and maturity index. Thus, the present study concluded that composting agricultural crops waste with animal manure, especially mule dung promoted excellent biodegradation of organic complexes. It is a nature friendly solution for the management of solid waste such as agro-wastes utilizing mule dung.

Silicon as a mitigator of water deficit stress in radish crop

Silicon is the second most abundant element in the Earth's crust and has several beneficial effects on plants, such as increase photosynthetic capacity and improve the architecture of the aerial parts. Water stress negatively affects plant development and, specifically in horticultural species, impacts metabolic processes with consequences on quality and productivity. The aim of this research was to investigate through physiological and biochemical parameters if the use of silicate in place of dolomitic limestone can contribute to the tolerance of radish plants submitted to water deficiency. The experiment was carried out in a greenhouse in Botucatu, Brazil, with radishes of the Apolo variety, distributed in randomized blocks in a 3 × 2 factorial scheme, being three irrigation depths, with high soil moisture at tensions corresponding to 10 kPa (control, FC - field capacity), 20 kPa (MWD - moderate water deficiency), and 30 kPa (SWD - several water deficiency), and two soil correctives, limestone and silicate, totaling six treatments and three repetitions. Irrigation management was performed with tensiometers. The parameters evaluated included biometrics, biomass, growth rates, photosynthesis, enzymatic activity, soluble protein, and proline. Through discussion of the results, it was possible to conclude that the silicate provided tolerance to water stress, reduced the percentage of cracked roots, and increased yield in the radish crop. Therefore the use of silicate in arid areas with low water availability is of great importance.

Pan-genome of Raphanus highlights genetic variation and introgression among domesticated, wild, and weedy radishes

Post-polyploid diploidization associated with descending dysploidy and interspecific introgression drives plant genome evolution by unclear mechanisms. Raphanus is an economically and ecologically important Brassiceae genus and model system for studying post-polyploidization genome evolution and introgression. Here, we report the de novo sequence assemblies for 11 genomes covering most of the typical sub-species and varieties of domesticated, wild and weedy radishes from East Asia, South Asia, Europe, and America. Divergence among the species, sub-species, and South/East Asian types coincided with Quaternary glaciations. A genus-level pan-genome was constructed with family-based, locus-based, and graph-based methods, and whole-genome comparisons revealed genetic variations ranging from single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) to inversions and translocations of whole ancestral karyotype (AK) blocks. Extensive gene flow occurred between wild, weedy, and domesticated radishes. High frequencies of genome reshuffling, biased retention, and large-fragment translocation have shaped the genomic diversity. Most variety-specific gene-rich blocks showed large structural variations. Extensive translocation and tandem duplication of dispensable genes were revealed in two large rearrangement-rich islands. Disease resistance genes mostly resided on specific and dispensable loci. Variations causing the loss of function of enzymes modulating gibberellin deactivation were identified and could play an important role in phenotype divergence and adaptive evolution. This study provides new insights into the genomic evolution underlying post-polyploid diploidization and lays the foundation for genetic improvement of radish crops, biological control of weeds, and protection of wild species' germplasms.

Consortium effect of radish and carrot in the city of Palotina – PR / Efeito de consórcio de rabanete e cenoura na cidade de Palotina – PR

The main objective of this work was to evaluate the effect of the consortium of carrot and radish crops on the efficient use of land. The experiment was developed in the vegetable production area of the Adroaldo Augusto Colombo State Agricultural College in the period from March to June 2019. Three repetitions were performed from the randomized block experimental design. The treatments refer to radish monoculture, carrot monoculture, and consortia of carrot with radish, placing one row of each crop and alternating them. Crop yields were evaluated by measuring both yield and commercial fresh mass. Commercial diameter and root length were also evaluated. The highest yields were observed when carrots were planted in monoculture and when radish was intercropped with carrots. Although a certain improvement in the carrot yield was observed in terms of monoculture, when the carrot is planted in intercropping, there is a better utilization of the area, as well as of the other resources available. Resources such as the soil itself, nutrients, light, and water. On the other hand, there is the possibility of increasing the diversity of products produced, also promoting a reduction in the economic risks to the producer.

Determination Of Effective Parasite-Entomofag Species In The Management Of The Number Of Family Representatives In Pieridae

The article covers studies that cabbage white butterfly is considered a dangerous pest common in vegetable crops and can cause great harm by feeding on more than 10 species of cabbage crops. Also, such pests as cabbage white butterfly, turnip white butterfly and rap white butterfly have been covered in scientific research to prevent the death of up to 60-65% of the crop in cabbage, turnip, radish and radish crops in mammal conditions.

FUZZY MODELING OF THE EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT IRRIGATION DEPTH IN RADISH CROP. PART II: BIOMETRIC VARIABLES ANALYSIS

In order to estimate the response of biometric variables in different irrigation depths in radish crop, as well as their relations in the development of the crop, a fuzzy mathematical analysis was carried out from irrigation with depths of different percentages of the crop evapotranspiration (ETc), using Gaussian pertinence functions for the input variable and triangular for the biometric output variables. Validations were performed using neural network models, smoothing splines and polynomial regression. The relation among the biometric variables was measured applying the Pearson correlation coefficient. The results showed that the fuzzy modeling presented superiority in the crop development estimate over the quadratic polynomial regression model, neural network and smoothing splines, because it achieved an average reduction of errors among the biometric variables, of 7.8% 94.6% and 9.2% for the RMSE in the respective models, as well as a better adjustment of the data with average R2 of the variables. The modeling with neural network showed inadequate agronomic behavior in data representation. Regarding biometric variables, the length and diameter of the tuberous root are inversely correlated, and the fresh phytomass of the tuberous root is correlated only with the fresh phytomass of the root.

Yield Enhancement of Biostimulants, Vitamin B12, and CoQ10 Compared to Inorganic Fertilizer in Radish

Two pot experiments were conducted to evaluate the response of radish crops against different plant growth regulators, biostimulants, and leaf extracts at Yale University, USA. The first experiment examined the marginal effect of vitamin B12 when added to the Berlyn Laboratory’s proprietary biostimulant formula (GPB Core). Increasing concentrations of vitamin B12 were added, as investigated in groups SL (0 mg/L), SB1 (0.5 mg/L), SB2 (1.0 mg/L), and SB3 (1.5 mg/L). The addition of vitamin B12 conferred no significant incremental benefit over the GPB Core. However, the GPB Core formula (SL) increased fresh shoot biomass by 172.9%, dry shoot biomass by 136.4%, fresh root biomass by 64.7%, and dry root biomass by 29.1% over plant treated with inorganic fertilizer alone (p < 0.01). The second experiment examined the combined marginal effect of vitamin B12 and coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10) when added to the GPB Core. The three experimental groups included the GPB Core plus inorganic fertilizer (S+); GPB Core, vitamin B12, CoQ10, and inorganic fertilizer (SBQ+); and GPB Core, vitamin B12, CoQ10, and no inorganic fertilizer (SBQ0). SBQ0 outperformed the inorganic fertilizer control in fresh shoot, dry shoot, fresh root, and dry root biomass by 190.3%, 127.1%, 128.5%, and 41.3%, respectively (p < 0.01), indicating that inorganic fertilizer can be replaced by biostimulants while simultaneously increasing yield. Additionally, the differences between SBQ+ and SBQ0 in the biomass metrics were statistically insignificant, indicating that in the presence of biostimulants, inorganic fertilizers confer a slight marginal benefit. There was no evidence, however, that the addition of CoQ10 and vitamin B12 conferred benefits over S+. Overall, the application of biostimulants statistically significantly improves radish biomass. Both experiments indicate that under low stress conditions, biostimulants can replace inorganic fertilizer while simultaneously increasing yield.

One-step extraction and analysis of 45 contaminants of emerging concern using QuEChERS methodology and HR-MS in radish leaves and roots

The scarcity of freshwater has led to a considerable increase of the reuse of reclaimed wastewater for irrigation of field crops [1,2]. This practice potentially exposes agricultural produce to a large variety of xenobiotic compounds including contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) which have been widely recognized to be present in wastewater [3]. Common approaches for the extraction of CECs from crops rely on solid-liquid extraction [4], assisted solvent extraction [5], ultra-sound solvent extraction [6] and recently QuEChERS (QUick, Easy, CHeap, Effective, Rugged and Safe) [7–9]. Here, eight QuEChERS-based methodologies were compared for their suitability to determine 45 CECs in roots and leaves of soil-grown radish.The key points of the method development were:•The development of two single-step analytical methods specific for radish root and leaves, after testing eight different approaches using QuEChERS extraction for the quantitation of 45 CECs. The analytical methodology selected requires minimal time and solvent, making it cost-effective.•Methods validation were performed at five concentrations levels (2, 5, 10, 50 and 200 ng g−1), with low limits of quantification between 0.01 and 0.32 ng g−1.•The two optimized methodologies may be applied to identify large number of compounds of different families in radish crop. However, validation will be needed to quantify compounds different from the target compounds of this paper.

Tree resin as a cultivation strategy under water deficit

ABSTRACT The search for alternatives that enable the improvement of the soil water retention capacity should focus on a better water use by cultivated plants. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of natural tree resin rates and irrigation levels on the cotton (intermediate cycle) and wild radish (short cycle) crops. Two experiments were conducted in a completely randomized design, in a 5 × 5 factorial arrangement, with three replications and five tree resin rates (0, 0.67, 1.33, 2.00 and 2.67 g plant-1), five soil water tensions (15, 30, 45, 60 and 75 kPa) for cotton plants and five irrigation water levels (40, 60, 80, 100 and 120 % of the ETc) for wild radish plants. The plant height, stem diameter and number of leaves were evaluated at 93 days after sowing (DAS) for the cotton plants; while the plant height, root diameter and number of leaves were evaluated at 30 DAS for the wild radish plants, as well as quantified the shoot and root dry weights of both plant species. The application of tree resin reduces the susceptibility of the crop to water deficit, being 2.7 g plant-1 the highest recommended rate to improve the plant development. The use of tree resin increases the water-use efficiency in cotton and wild radish crops in up to 0.68 g L-1 and 69.6 g L-1, respectively.

Influence of enriched spent mushroom substrate on microbial population, nutrient availability and yield of radish (Raphanus sativus L.)

A field experiment was conducted to ameliorate the quality of spent mushroom substrate by enriching it with biofertilizers like Azotobacter, PSB and KMB and its beneficial effect on soil health and yield of radish crop. Influence of enriched spent mushroom substrate on soil was estimated in terms of microbial activities and nutrient availability of soil to plant. The treatment T4 - SMS + Consortium of AZT + PSB + KMB was significantly superior over other treatments in terms of microbial population, nutrient availability of soil and yield of radish followed by treatment T5 – FYM + Consortium of AZT + PSB + KMB. The minimum observations were recorded in treatment T8 - Absolute control. The increased microbial activities positively showed increase in nutrient availability of soil to plant and yield attributes in radish crop.

Exploring Yield Potential of Raphanussativus L. By Various Organic Matter Sources

An experiment was conducted in order evaluate the influence of various organic matter sources on radish crop at Vegetable Research Farm Singri, Bhimber Azad Kashmir, during October, 2018. The experiment was replicated three times with 4 treatments (control, chicken manure, FYM and leaf compost). The lowest non-significant results for days to germination (6.00) were observed in chicken manure and highest (8.33) in control treatment. The maximum significantly high yield was obtained where organic matter sources (chicken manure, FYM and leaf compost) were applied and significantly low yield was observed in control treatment. The non-significantly high yield (4541g, 4665g and 4599g) was obtained in chicken manure, FYM and leaf compost respectively which was significantly low (3953g) in control treatments related with vegetative growth (number of leaves and leaf length) that was more where organic fertilizer was applied. It was proved that chicken manure was best for vegetative growth of radish as well as its root growth development and FYM and leaf compost results for yield was almost same and highest under the agro-climatic conditions of district Bhimber, Azad Kashmir. Pakistan.