Radionuclide Decay Research Articles

Radiation characteristics analysis for spallation products of lead–bismuth target and tungsten–iron–nickel target

The radiation characteristics of spallation products are important references for evaluating the materials used as spallation targets. Therefore, it is necessary to study the radiation characteristics of spallation products. In this study, the spallation products of tungsten–iron–nickel target and lead–bismuth target were calculated and analyzed based on the radionuclide distributions and decay photon shielding of the spallation products. The radionuclide distributions of the spallation products were calculated using FLUKA, and the shielding of decay photons was calculated with OpenMC. In addition, the variance reduction function with an importance card was added to the OpenMC code to allow its use for calculating deep penetration problems.

TransPyREnd: a code for modelling the transport of radionuclides on geological timescales

Abstract. The German site selection procedure for a high-level nuclear waste repository is entering a stage in which preliminary safety assessments have to be conducted and the release of radionuclides has to be estimated for a large number of potential sites. Here, we present TransPyREnd, a 1D finite-differences code for modeling the transport of radionuclides in the subsurface at geological timescales. The code simulates the processes advection, diffusion, equilibrium sorption, decay of radionuclides, and the build-up of daughter nuclides. We summarize the modeled physical processes, their mathematical description and our numerical approach to solve the governing equations. Finally, two simple tests are shown, one considering diffusion, sorption, and radioactive decay, the other involving diffusion and a radioactive decay chain. In both tests, the code shows good agreement with the reference solutions. Caveats of the model and future additions are discussed.

Material Effects on Electron-Capture Decay in Cryogenic Sensors

Several current searches for physics beyond the standard model are based on measuring the electron-capture (EC) decay of radionuclides implanted into cryogenic high-resolution sensors. The sensitivity of these experiments has already reached the level where systematic effects related to atomic state energy changes from the host material are a limiting factor. One example is a neutrino mass study based on the nuclear EC decay of ${}^{7}\mathrm{Be}$ to ${}^{7}\mathrm{Li}$ inside cryogenic $\mathrm{Ta}$-based sensors. To understand the material effects at the required level, we use density-functional theory to model the electronic structure of lithium atoms in different atomic environments of the polycrystalline $\mathrm{Ta}$ absorber film. The calculations reveal that the $\mathrm{Li}$ 1s binding energies can vary by more than 2 eV due to insertion at different lattice sites, at grain boundaries, in disordered $\mathrm{Ta}$, and in the vicinity of various impurities. However, the total range of $\mathrm{Li}$ 1s shifts does not exceed 4 eV, even for extreme amorphous disorder. Furthermore, when investigating the effects on the $\mathrm{Li}$ 2s levels, we find broadening of more than 5 eV due to hybridization with the $\mathrm{Ta}$ band structure. Material effects are shown to contribute significantly to peak broadening in $\mathrm{Ta}$-based sensors that are used to search for physics beyond the standard model in the EC decay of ${}^{7}\mathrm{Be}$, but they do not explain the full extent of observed broadening. Understanding these in-medium effects will be required for current- and future-generation experiments that observe low-energy radiation from the EC decay of implanted isotopes to evaluate potential limitations on the measurement sensitivity.

ОЦІНКА МОЖЛИВОСТІ РЕГУЛЮВАННЯ ВОДНОГО РЕЖИМУ ОКРЕМИХ ТЕРИТОРІЙ ЧОРНОБИЛЬСЬКОЇ ЗОНИ ВІДЧУЖЕННЯ

The characteristics of the natural features of the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone (CEZ), in particular the nature of the relief, soil cover, main plant groups, and landscape characteristics, are provided. The hydrographic network of the region is detailed, represented by rivers, lakes, ponds, dams of the Pripyat and Uzh rivers, the reservoir of the Kyiv HPP, reclamation channels, water mirrors in front of filtration dams. It was noted that the main processes that form the current level of radioactive contamination of water systems in the CEZ are natural processes of radioactive decay, vertical sinking and geochemical fixation of radionuclides. Analysis of water pollution monitoring data in rivers and canals of the exclusion zone shows that by regulating water levels in most areas of the catchment areas of the CEZ, it is impossible to significantly influence the reduction of water pollution in them compared to the effects of their natural self-purification. Therefore, it is impractical to continue large-scale works on water flow regulation by hydrotechnical structures in order to minimize the removal of radioactive substances beyond the exclusion zone. It is advisable to leave in operation only those systems that allow maintaining increased moisture in peatlands, reducing the risks of fires. The studies carried out on the reclamation system “Buryakivka” in the basin of the Sakhan River, as an experimental training ground for the regulation of the regime of floodplains of the CEZ, are covered in detail. The use of the method of remote sensing of the Earth (DSS) to control the water regime and monitor the transformation of reclamation systems into wetlands is substantiated. In particular, spectral analysis of image pixels in different parts of the spectrum using vegetation indices. A positive nature protection effect from the increase in the area of wetlands in the Exclusion Zone was noted in the context of the prospects of climate change and in the context of the probability of increasing cases of dry periods in the territory of Polissia.

Theranostics through Utilizing Cherenkov Radiation of Radioisotope Zr-89 with a Nanocomposite Combination of TiO2 and MnO2.

Cherenkov radiation (CR) derived from the decay of diagnostic and therapeutic radionuclides is currently being studied by the scientific community to determine if these emissions can be harnessed for cancer detection and therapy. While Cherenkov luminescence imaging (CLI) has been studied in the preclinical and clinical settings, Cherenkov radiation-induced cancer therapy (CRICT) is a relatively new area of research that harnesses the emitted photons to kill cancer cells through free radical generation and DNA damage. Nanoparticles seem well suited for developing a theranostic platform that would allow researchers to visualize therapy delivery and also generate the reactive oxygen species necessary to kill cancer cells. Herein, we report the preparation of an 89Zr-TiO2-MnO2 nanocomposite that incorporates transferrin onto the nanoparticle surface to enhance cancer cell growth inhibition. The incorporation of the positron emission tomography (PET) radioisotope 89Zr (half-life: 3.3 days) allowed for the detection of the nanoparticle using PET and for the creation of Cherenkov emissions that interacted with the nanoparticle surface to generate free radicals for therapy delivery. After preparation, these systems were observed to be stable in various media and provided excellent tumor growth control after being intratumorally injected into mice bearing CT-26 tumors. These results demonstrate that a therapeutically efficient CRICT platform can be generated using commercially available and affordable materials.

Spectral unmixing of multi-temporal data in gamma-ray spectrometry

A challenging problem in gamma-ray spectrum analysis is the rapid detection of artificial radionuclides at low activity levels. Until now, traditional methods focus on activity estimation based on single spectra, obtained by integrating over time the measured disintegration events. However, accounting for the well-constrained radionuclides decay should allow for a more accurate and sensitive activity estimation. For that purpose, we investigate a novel approach to estimate radionuclides’ activity, which is (i) first based on multi-temporal data, obtained from several short measurements rather than a single one, and (ii) built upon a dedicated spectral unmixing, which allows processing multi-temporal data. The proposed algorithm allows accounting for both the full spectrum of each radionuclide (i.e. peaks and Compton continuum) and their activity decay in time. To that purpose, different approaches are investigated to model the temporal dependencies of the radionuclides’ activities, and specifically to account for potentially out of equilibrium radionuclides’ decay chains. Experimental results on both simulated spectra and real measurements are presented and compared to standard methods, it is shown that the proposed approach leads to more accurate estimations and faster detection of artificial radionuclides.

Attenuation of beta radiation in granular matrices: implications for trapped-charge dating

Abstract. Mineral grains within sediment or rock absorb a radiation dose from the decay of radionuclides in the host matrix. For the beta dose component, the estimated dose rate must be adjusted for the attenuation of beta particles within the mineral grains. Standard calculations, originally designed for thermoluminescence dating of pottery, assume that the grain is embedded in a homogenous medium. However, most current applications of trapped-charge dating concern sand- or silt-sized dosimeters embedded in granular sediment. In such cases, the radionuclide sources are not homogeneous but are localised in discrete grains or held on grain surfaces. We show here that the mean dose rate to dosimeter grains in a granular matrix is dependent on the grain-size distributions of the source grains and of the bulk sediment, in addition to the grain size of the dosimeters. We further argue that U and Th sources are likely to be held primarily on grain surfaces, which causes the dose rate to dosimeter grains to be significantly higher than for sources distributed uniformly throughout grains. For a typical well-sorted medium sand, the beta dose rates derived from surface U and Th sources are higher by ∼ 20 % and ∼ 30 %, respectively, compared to a homogenous distribution of sources. We account for these effects using an expanded model of beta attenuation – including the effect of moisture – and validate the model against Monte Carlo radiation transport simulations within a geometry of packed spheres.

Environmental evaluation of radioactivity levels and associated radiation hazards in groundwater around the WIPP site

Groundwater may contain radioactive substances which can be dangerous to human health. Concentrations of natural radionuclides polonium (Po), thorium (Th), uranium (U), and radium (Ra) isotopes were measured in groundwater samples collected from different locations in the vicinity of the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant (WIPP) site in Carlsbad, New Mexico. The average values of gross activity concentrations of 210Po, 228Th, 238U, 234U, 226Ra and 228 Ra isotopes were determined to be 1.62 Bq L-1 in shallow groundwater and 5.88 Bq L-1 in deep groundwater, respectively. The total radioactivity in deep groundwater was higher than that in shallow groundwater, and most of the radioactivity in the water is from 226Ra. Furthermore, the effective doses for ingestion of natural radionuclides were about 0.333 mSv y−1 for shallow groundwater and about 1.338 mSv y−1 for deep groundwater samples, which are higher than the World Health Organization (WHO, 2017) guideline level (0.1 mSv y−1) for drinking water. Ra dominated the total ingestion dose, contributing 93.06 % and 75.40 % of the total effective doses to the deep and shallow groundwater, respectively. The ingrowth and decay of natural radionuclides suggested that 228Ra/226Ra ratio can be a useful indicator of the source of radioactive contamination. The radioactivity data obtained from the investigated groundwater samples can be used to establish a baseline for radioactivity levels in groundwater around the WIPP site.

Microliter-scale reaction arrays for economical high-throughput experimentation in radiochemistry

The increasing number of positron-emission tomography (PET) tracers being developed to aid drug development and create new diagnostics has led to an increased need for radiosynthesis development and optimization. Current radiosynthesis instruments are designed to produce large-scale clinical batches and are often limited to performing a single synthesis before they must be decontaminated by waiting for radionuclide decay, followed by thorough cleaning or disposal of synthesizer components. Though with some radiosynthesizers it is possible to perform a few sequential radiosyntheses in a day, none allow for parallel radiosyntheses. Throughput of one or a few experiments per day is not well suited for rapid optimization experiments. To combat these limitations, we leverage the advantages of droplet-radiochemistry to create a new platform for high-throughput experimentation in radiochemistry. This system contains an array of 4 heaters, each used to heat a set of 16 reactions on a small chip, enabling 64 parallel reactions for the rapid optimization of conditions in any stage of a multi-step radiosynthesis process. As examples, we study the syntheses of several 18F-labeled radiopharmaceuticals ([18F]Flumazenil, [18F]PBR06, [18F]Fallypride, and [18F]FEPPA), performing > 800 experiments to explore the influence of parameters including base type, base amount, precursor amount, solvent, reaction temperature, and reaction time. The experiments were carried out within only 15 experiment days, and the small volume (~ 10 μL compared to the ~ 1 mL scale of conventional instruments) consumed ~ 100 × less precursor per datapoint. This new method paves the way for more comprehensive optimization studies in radiochemistry and substantially shortening PET tracer development timelines.

A mesh-based model of liver vasculature: implications for improved radiation dosimetry to liver parenchyma for radiopharmaceuticals

PurposeTo develop a model of the internal vasculature of the adult liver and demonstrate its application to the differentiation of radiopharmaceutical decay sites within liver parenchyma from those within organ blood.MethodComputer-generated models of hepatic arterial (HA), hepatic venous (HV), and hepatic portal venous (HPV) vascular trees were algorithmically created within individual lobes of the ICRP adult female and male livers (AFL/AML). For each iteration of the algorithm, pressure, blood flow, and vessel radii within each tree were updated as each new vessel was created and connected to a viable bifurcation site. The vascular networks created inside the AFL/AML were then tetrahedralized for coupling to the PHITS radiation transport code. Specific absorbed fractions (SAF) were computed for monoenergetic alpha particles, electrons, positrons, and photons. Dual-region liver models of the AFL/AML were proposed, and particle-specific SAF values were computed assuming radionuclide decays in blood within two locations: (1) sites within explicitly modeled hepatic vessels, and (2) sites within the hepatic blood pool residing outside these vessels to include the capillaries and blood sinuses. S values for 22 and 10 radionuclides commonly used in radiopharmaceutical therapy and imaging, respectively, were computed using the dual-region liver models and compared to those obtained in the existing single-region liver model.ResultsLiver models with virtual vasculatures of ~ 6000 non-intersecting straight cylinders representing the HA, HPV, and HV circulations were created for the ICRP reference. For alpha emitters and for beta and auger-electron emitters, S values using the single-region models were approximately 11% (AML) to 14% (AFL) and 11% (AML) to 13% (AFL) higher than the S values obtained using the dual-region models, respectively.ConclusionsThe methodology employed in this study has shown improvements in organ parenchymal dosimetry through explicit consideration of blood self-dose for alpha particles (all energies) and for electrons at energies below ~ 100 keV.

Assessment of SCALE and MELCOR for a generic pebble bed fluoride high-temperature reactor

This paper presents the development and application of SCALE and MELCOR models for a fluoride salt-cooled high-temperature reactor (FHR) based on publicly available specifications. SCALE version 6.3beta15 was used to generate power distributions and decay heat curves, and MELCOR version 2.2.18019 was used to calculate the thermal hydraulic response of an assumed FHR primary system. An approach was developed for determining the equilibrium state of the core using depletion of a core slice model and blending of fuel compositions at different burnups to provide three-dimensional fuel composition in the core. Results compared between a core with entirely fresh fuel and one with an equilibrium fuel composition revealed that the equilibrium core led to lower steady-state temperatures but slower cooldown during a loss of flow accident (LOFA). A sensitivity study was then conducted to explore the transient response of our FHR system to variations in thermal hydraulic parameters of the system using the equilibrium core. The inlet temperature, graphite thermal conductivity, and SCRAM time all provided significant control over peak fuel and coolant temperatures. Uncertainties in radionuclide decay data in SCALE were used to perform a decay heat sensitivity study, and we found that uncertainties in decay heat led to negligible impact on peak temperatures during the course of the transient. In all cases evaluated, the observed peak fuel temperatures remained approximately 700 K below anticipated failure limits for the LOFA.

Ab initio investigation of properties and mobility of helium defects in La2Sn2O7 pyrochlore

The accumulated helium atoms mitigate the physical properties of nuclear waste forms through long-time radionuclide decay and thus cause the safety concern. In this work, first-principles calculations were carried out to investigate the effects of helium atoms on the structural, electronic, and mechanical properties of La2Sn2O7 pyrochlore. He atoms cause small volume swelling but no significant influence on its mechanical properties. The formation energy analysis suggests that octahedral interstitial sites are preferred. He interstitial may drive phase change from pyrochlore to the fluorite structure. The local electronic properties have also been analyzed to assess the impact of He clusters. The minimum energy pathway for helium to migration is identified as via O-O interstitial sites with a barrier of 1.39 eV. This work might offer a theoretical foundation for the He damage of the nuclear waste forms.

Sources of Polonium 210Po and Radio-Lead 210Pb in Human Body in Poland.

This article contains and discusses the results of research on the source of polonium 210Po and radio-lead 210Pb in the human body of adults living in Poland. An adult inhabitant of Poland receives an effective annual radiation dose of 309 µSv from inhalation and absorption of 210Po and 210Pb. The main sources of both radionuclides in the body is cigarette and marijuana smoking. In terms of food, the consumption of fish, cereals, vegetables and fruit as well as mushrooms have the largest contribution to annual dose. This study highlights the importance of cigarette smoking and the growing importance of marijuana hash smoking as the main source of 210Po and 210Pb for adults living in Poland. The calculated dose that results from the decay of both radionuclides in body is 1/10 of the annual radiation dose received by a Polish inhabitant from natural sources (2.8 mSv) and is almost five times lower than the dose resulting from the inhalation of 222Rn.

Simple and easy way for students to develop a dynamic model on Excel sheet

Abstract Radioactive decay is not only important in the field of radiochemistry but also useful as a teaching material for chemical kinetics. Although differential equations are often used to explain how decay rate changes over time, there are many students even in college or university who are not very good at mathematics and have difficulty in solving differential equations. Those students are expected to appreciate institutive and schematic illustrations using Excel sheets. In this paper, a water and tank model to demonstrate how radionuclides decay and decrease over time is presented as an example of the model that the students can develop or rearrange by themselves. Therefore, only four arithmetical operations were used in the sheet, so that the students can easily grasp the basic concept of a decay curve or radioactive equilibrium even if they do not have great knowledge of differential equations. In addition, only “Record Macro” and built in “Charts” were used on the sheet, and therefore, no knowledge or skill in graphic programming, such as Visual Basic, is needed to make and use the sheet. A brief online survey indicated the model was interesting to high school students. Since Excel is widely used all over the world, the sheets we have developed can be used in many countries without additional expense.

CLIMATE CHANGES AND SITE DISPOSAL OF OBJECTS ON THE CHRONOBYL STATION SITE

Currently, in the Exclusion Zone at the site of the Chornobyl NPP, work is being carried out on the final closure and conservation of power units 1–3, the feature of which is the presence of a high-capacity channel uranium-graphite reactor (RVPK). During operation, the reactor graphite becomes radioactive due to the accumulation of the long-lived radionuclide 14C in the graphite. An additional contribution is made by the indicated radioactivity of technological impurities (36Cl, 60Co) and spills of fission products and fragments of nuclear fuel. The main problem of the decommissioning of nuclear installations from the RVPK is related to the need to choose optimal methods of handling large volumes of spent graphite. The possibility of applying the technology of near-surface disposal of decommissioned uranium-graphite reactors of the RVPK, known as the “green mound”, to power units 1–3 of the Chernobyl NPP was considered. Natural factors have been identified, the possible action of which during the time required for the decay of radionuclides 14C and 36Cl to an acceptable level, may lead to the destruction of near-surface storage facilities for disposal at the Chernobyl NPP site. These factors determine the rehabilitation of the river valley of the Pripyat River and the vulnerability of surface disposal repositories to the effects of cyclical climate changes. Climatic changes should be taken into account when making decisions on on-site disposal, given that the processes of decay of long-lived radionuclides, degradation of matrices of incorporated radioactive waste, and the duration of protective barriers in terms of time are relevant to the dynamics of climate change. The need to take into account the impact of global climate changes on the intensity of changes in the geomorphological characteristics of the locations of “green mounds” was noted. A particularly dangerous and powerful natural factor that will inevitably lead to the destruction of the “green mounds” is the influence of probable glaciation. The relevance of solving the scientific task of a complex combination of knowledge regarding the formation of the physical and geographical features of Polissia in the last 200 thousand years with the modeling of climate changes in the future 100 thousand years is emphasized, which will allow to reasonably accept or reject the very idea of near-surface burial of long-lived radioactive waste at the Chernobyl NPP site.

Hydrothermal Activities on C-Complex Asteroids Induced by Radioactivity

Abstract C-complex asteroids, rich in carbonaceous materials, are potential sources of Earth’s volatile inventories. They are spectrally dark resembling primitive carbonaceous meteorites, and thus, C-complex asteroids are thought to be potential parent bodies of carbonaceous meteorites. However, the substantial number of C-complex asteroids exhibits surface spectra with weaker hydroxyl absorption than water-rich carbonaceous meteorites. Rather, they best correspond to meteorites showing evidence for dehydration, commonly attributed to impact heating. Here, we report an old radiometric age of 4564.7 million years ago for Ca carbonates from the Jbilet Winselwan meteorite analogous to dehydrated C-complex asteroids. The carbonates are enclosed by a high-temperature polymorph of Ca sulfates, suggesting thermal metamorphism at >300°C subsequently after aqueous alteration. This old age indicates the early onset of aqueous alteration and subsequent thermal metamorphism driven by the decay of short-lived radionuclides rather than impact heating. The breakup of original asteroids internally heated by radioactivity should result in asteroid families predominantly consisting of thermally metamorphosed materials. This explains the common occurrence of dehydrated C-complex asteroids.

Route measurements of natural surface radiation background in the Almaty region

Measurements of the spatial distribution of radon isotopes were carried out from April 2021 to August 2021 in the foothills of the Trans-Ili Alatau of the Tien Shan in the Almaty region at various heights above sea level: from 500 to 2500 meters. They were carried out using electronic radiometric equipment: beta-dosimeter “RKS-01B-SOLO”; gamma dosimeter “RKS-01G-SOLO”; radiometer of radon and its daughter decay products “RAMON- 02” in the field. As a result, preliminary assessment schemes were built for route measurements of the 222Rn radon isotope, beta and gamma radiation fields from natural daughter products of decay of radon isotopes and radionuclides located in the surface atmospheric layer.

Study of the natural radioactivity of ore deposits

In the article, the authors present experimental data on the specific power equivalent dose (EDR) of radiation gamma, beta, and alpha radiation in samples containing copper, zinc and lead of pyrite-polymetallic ores, which were mined at the Zhezkent mining and processing plant (The East Kazakhstan region, Borodulikhinsky district). The measurements were carried out by dosimeters and radiometers "RKS-01-SOLO" with alpha, beta and gamma scintillation detectors. For ores, the dependences of the specific power of the equivalent dose of gamma radiation on the content of various concentrations of copper, zinc and lead were revealed. The analysis of natural decay chains, the daughter products of which are stable isotopes of copper and zinc, is carried out. A relationship has been proposed between the concentrations of nickel, copper, lead and EDR, which gives prospects for further spectrometric studies of these samples to identify the corresponding lines of accompanying gamma radiation during decays of radionuclides contained in the samples under study and radiation conversion of stable isotopes. The results of this work will make it possible to build a model for studying the radiation of ores, the distribution of natural radionuclides in the earth's crust, which will undoubtedly provide prerequisites for the verification and clarification of the sources and mechanisms of emanation and coagulation of radon isotopes, which form the natural radiation background of the surface atmospheric layer.

Estimated measurements of natural background radiation in the surface atmospheric layer of the Almaty region

The radon isotopes of natural radioactive radiation of the earth’s crust emanating to the surface areconcentrated in the human environment and have a direct impact on the people health. Due to this factthe problem of studying the radiation distributions in the surface atmospheric layer of the Earth is urgent.In this work, measurements of the exposure dose rate, beta particle flux, and equivalent equilibriumvolumetric activity (EEVA) of radon in the surface atmospheric layer of the Earth have been performed.Measurements of radon and gamma, beta backgrounds were carried out from April 2021 to August 2021in the Almaty region at various altitudes above sea level: from 500 to 2500 meters. They were carried outusing electronic radiometric equipment: beta-dosimeter “RKS-01B-SOLO”; gamma dosimeter “RKS-01GSOLO”;radiometer of radon-222 “RAMON-02” in the field. As a result, preliminary assessment schemeswere built for route measurements of the 222Rn radon isotope, beta and gamma radiation fields fromnatural daughter products of decay of radon isotopes and radionuclides located in the surface atmosphericlayer. As a result of this work, an altitude dependence of changes in the natural radiation gamma and betabackground of the surface surface layer is presented, which grows with an increase in the surface above sealevel. The different activity of radon over rocks and soils is shown, which, as is known, is associated withthe exhalation of radon and which depends, among other things, on the density of the soils. The preliminaryresults of measurements of significant perturbations of the EEVA of radon did not reveal. Key words: variations in time of radon; natural beta active radionuclides; coagulation; atmospheric radioactive, nanoparticles.

Application of the optical spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction methods for determining the effect of irradiation of the LR-115 type 2 track detector

The aim of this work is to evaluate the application of optical spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction methods as alternative methods for determining the dose dependence of the irradiation of solid-state nuclear track detectors (SSNTD) based on polymer films of nitrocellulose when irradiated with He particles. The choice of this type of film detectors as an object of research was due to its wide application for the detection of ionizing radiation during radionuclide decay. According to the data obtained, using optical analysis methods, it was found that an increase in exposure time leads to an increase in the transmission value and a shift in the fundamental absorption edge, which indicates the occurrence of changes in optical density in the material during accumulation of defects arising from the formation of latent tracks. The obtained data of structural changes using X-ray diffraction, showed that at small periods of exposure to ionizing radiation, the change of structural parameters is more severe than the change of optical characteristics. This is due to the fact that in the case of formation of single isolated tracks, the change in electron density along the trajectory of the ions is isolated and has a local character, while the change in structural characteristics, including the deformation is more pronounced. Such difference is also related to different mechanisms of energy losses of incident particles contributing to the change of structural and optical properties. Changing of optical properties is connected with electron losses of incident particles because the electron density changes as a result of particle passing along its trajectory, and this effect in case of single tracks is isolated and has a local character in a very small region. At the same time, the change of structural characteristics, in particular, deformations and displacements occur as a result of both elastic and non-elastic interactions of interacting particles with materials.