Quiscalus Mexicanus Research Articles

How far will a behaviourally flexible invasive bird go to innovate?

Behavioural flexibility is considered a key factor in the ability to adapt to changing environments. A traditional way of characterizing behavioural flexibility is to determine whether individuals invent solutions to novel problems, termed innovativeness. Great-tailed grackles are behaviourally flexible in that they can change their preferences when a task changes using existing behaviours; however, it is unknown how far they will go to invent solutions to novel problems. To begin to answer this question, I gave grackles two novel tests that a variety of other species can perform: stick tool use and string pulling. No grackle used a stick to access out-of-reach food, even after seeing a human demonstrate the solution. No grackle spontaneously pulled a vertically oriented string, but one did pull a horizontally oriented string twice. Additionally, a third novel test was previously conducted on these individuals and it was found that no grackle spontaneously dropped stones down a platform apparatus to release food, but six out of eight did become proficient after training. These results support the idea that behavioural flexibility is a multi-faceted trait because grackles are flexible, but not particularly innovative. This contradicts the idea that behavioural flexibility and innovativeness are interchangeable terms.

Behavioral flexibility and problem solving in an invasive bird.

Behavioral flexibility is considered an important trait for adapting to environmental change, but it is unclear what it is, how it works, and whether it is a problem solving ability. I investigated behavioral flexibility and problem solving experimentally in great-tailed grackles, an invasive bird species and thus a likely candidate for possessing behavioral flexibility. Grackles demonstrated behavioral flexibility in two contexts, the Aesop’s Fable paradigm and a color association test. Contrary to predictions, behavioral flexibility did not correlate across contexts. Four out of 6 grackles exhibited efficient problem solving abilities, but problem solving efficiency did not appear to be directly linked with behavioral flexibility. Problem solving speed also did not significantly correlate with reversal learning scores, indicating that faster learners were not the most flexible. These results reveal how little we know about behavioral flexibility, and provide an immense opportunity for future research to explore how individuals and species can use behavior to react to changing environments.

Diversity and Abundance of Birds in Agricultural Zone Associated to the Bay Santa María La Reforma, Sinaloa, Mexico

The objective of this research was to determine bird’s abundance and diversity associated in an agricultural system at the Bahia Santa Maria La Reforma (BSM-LR), which may represent a risk to crops and/or have a value for conservation. Annual monthly samplings were conducted to determine the richness and abundance of the birds; in seven linear transects, distributed throughout the agricultural area, all birds seen and heard were recorded. Bird species were identified using the field guides for birds in Mexico and North America and binoculars (8 × 40). Richness was determined from the accumulation of species seen over the sampling time, and the specific abundance with the sum of the number of individuals seen each month. The Alpha diversity was determined using the Shannon Wiener index and the monthly abundance data for each month sampled. A total of 15,427 birds from 110 species were found. This diversity is grouped into 16 orders, 37 families and 90 genera, of which Agaleus phoeiceus,Quiscalus mexicanus, Zenaida macroura and Columbina passerina were the most abundant, accounting for 77.6% of the total Birds seen; the exotic species found were Streptopelia decaocto, Sturnus vulgaris and Passer domesticus, and 16 species are of conservation concern.

Diversidad y uso de coberturas de aves asociadas al sector de Puerto Velero, Tubará - Atlántico, Colombia

Este estudio tuvo como propósito conocer la composición y estructura de las aves en Puerto Velero, en el departamento del Atlántico (Colombia). Se muestrearon dos coberturas (Manglar y Playa) realizando censos de aves, usando el método conteo por puntos. Las observaciones se hicieron de 06:00 a 10:00 y de 15:00 a 18:00 h y se registró la presencia y abundancia de todas las aves observadas. Se registró un total de 1.229 individuos pertenecientes a 33 especies y 17 familias. En la cobertura Manglar se observaron 28 especies y en la cobertura Playa se registraron 22. Las familias con mayor número de representantes fueron Scolopacidae (5 especies), Ardeidae y Charadriidae (4 especies cada una) y Tyrannidae (3 especies). Las especies abundantes en la zona de estudio fueron: Cathartes aura, Progne tapera, Charadrius wilsonia, Quiscalus mexicanus y Egretta thula. No hubo diferencias significativas entre la composición y abundancia de aves por cobertura. Aunque la composición de especies fue relativamente similar en ambos tipos de cobertura (61,26%), el valor del número de Hill indica que el Manglar fue la cobertura más importante con relación a la riqueza de especies. En Puerto Velero predominan aves con alto rango de distribución, pero las aves migratorias (8 familias en 4 órdenes) constituyen un componente importante de este grupo faunístico ya que son especies con requerimientos específicos en términos de disponibilidad de recursos para alimentarse, descansar y refugiarse. De igual manera, las especies residentes que se observaron cumplen un papel importante en términos de la funcionalidad ecológica y su contribución en procesos de regulación y soporte dentro del ecosistema.

Nuevos registros de aberraciones cromáticas en el plumaje de dos especies de aves en zonas urbanas de Hidalgo y Tamaulipas, México/

We report the first observations of partial leucism in Columbina inca and Quiscalus mexicanus, and also present the first record of albinism in Mexico for Q. mexicanus. We observed the leucistic individuals in human disturbed areas. This suggests that other individuals with chromatic aberration may be observed in non disturbed sites.

Registro de leucismo parcial en el zanate norteño (Quiscalus mexicanus) en Nuevo León, México/A record on partial leucism in great-tailed grackle (Quiscalus mexicanus) from Nuevo León, Mexico

We report the presence of an individual of Great-tailed Grackle with partial leucism, in a locality of the State of Nuevo León, México, on 28 November 2014. One female with abnormal coloration in the upper tail feathers was recorded and photographed.

Can endocranial volume be estimated accurately from external skull measurements in great-tailed grackles (Quiscalus mexicanus)?

There is an increasing need to validate and collect data approximating brain size on individuals in the field to understand what evolutionary factors drive brain size variation within and across species. We investigated whether we could accurately estimate endocranial volume (a proxy for brain size), as measured by computerized tomography (CT) scans, using external skull measurements and/or by filling skulls with beads and pouring them out into a graduated cylinder for male and female great-tailed grackles. We found that while females had higher correlations than males, estimations of endocranial volume from external skull measurements or beads did not tightly correlate with CT volumes. We found no accuracy in the ability of external skull measures to predict CT volumes because the prediction intervals for most data points overlapped extensively. We conclude that we are unable to detect individual differences in endocranial volume using external skull measurements. These results emphasize the importance of validating and explicitly quantifying the predictive accuracy of brain size proxies for each species and each sex.

Anthraquinone-based repellent for horned larks, great-tailed grackles, American crows and the protection of California's specialty crops

Specialty crops include fresh and dried fruits, vegetables, tree nuts, and horticultural and nursery crops. California accounts for 28% of the specialty crop acreage in the United States of America, including 72% of U.S. lettuce production (Lactuca sativa L.), 27% of U.S. melon production and 100% of U.S. almond production (Prunus dulcis L.). We conducted controlled feeding experiments to evaluate an anthraquinone-based repellent for horned larks (Eremophila alpestris L.), great-tailed grackles (Quiscalus mexicanus Gmelin) and American crows (Corvus brachyrhynchos Brehm) associated with the depredation of California's lettuce, melon and almond crops, respectively. We observed 38–100% feeding repellency among horned larks offered wheat seeds (Triticum spp. L.) treated with 168–3010 ppm anthraquinone during the concentration-response experiment. Great-tailed grackles exposed to rice seeds (Oryza sativa L.) treated with 2060–35,400 ppm anthraquinone exhibited 90–100% repellency. We observed 80–100% repellency among American crows offered almonds treated with 2980–31,500 ppm anthraquinone. We predicted a threshold concentration of 5200 ppm anthraquinone for American crows offered treated almonds. Our laboratory efficacy data provide a reliable basis for planning future field applications of anthraquinone-based bird repellents for the protection of specialty crops. Supplemental field efficacy studies are necessary for the registration of avian repellents and the management of agricultural depredation caused by wild birds.

Sarcocystis sp. parasites in the Mexican Great-tailed Grackle (Quiscalus mexicanus), Bronzed Cowbird (Molothrus aeneus), and Stripe-headed Sparrow (Aimophila ruficauda)

The objective of this study was to describe the morphological and ultraestructural characteristics, the polymerase chain reaction and restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) results, the sequences and the phylogenetic analysis of a specific fragment of internal transcribed spacer 1 (ITS-1), amplified using the 25/396 primers, of the Sarcocystis sp. parasites identified in the muscles of wild great-tailed grackles, bronzed cowbirds, and stripe-headed sparrows in Mexico. Fifteen birds with sarcocystosis in their skeletal muscles were studied: 7 great-tailed grackles (Quiscalus mexicanus), 6 bronzed cowbirds (Molothrus aeneus), and 2 stripe-headed sparrows (Aimophila ruficauda). Histopathological analysis revealed thin-walled mature parasite cysts. Ultrastructurally, the cyst wall consisted of a granular layer with villar protrusions and numerous microtubules. The bradyzoites measured 4.1 × 1.6 µm, and micronemes appeared in the anterior third of the conoid. For molecular identification, PCR-RFLP was performed using sequences of a specific fragment of internal transcribed spacer 1 (ITS-1) using the primers 25/396 and Hinf I. Hind III did not cut this fragment. The sequencing results indicated a 100% similarity among the Sarcocystis parasites from the three bird species, and a BLAST search revealed 96% sequence similarity with S. neurona. The phylogenetic analysis shows that the sequences studied are topologically distant to those sequences reported for S. neurona in the United States and in South America and are not related to any group previously reported. Although our morphological and molecular analysis data provide strong evidence that S. neurona uses these bird species as intermediate hosts, future molecular studies with additional DNA fragments, combined with biological studies, will ultimately allow us to convincingly identify these parasites. This is the first report of a Sarcocystis sp. parasite in wild birds in Mexico that may be S. neurona.

Reduced West Nile Virus Transmission Around Communal Roosts of Great-Tailed Grackle (Quiscalus mexicanus).

West Nile virus has caused several outbreaks among humans in the Phoenix metropolitan area (Arizona, southwest USA) within the last decade. Recent ecologic studies have implicated Culex quinquefasciatus and Culex tarsalis as the mosquito vectors and identified three abundant passerine birds-great-tailed grackle (Quiscalus mexicanus), house sparrow (Passer domesticus), and house finch (Haemorhous mexicanus)-as key amplifiers among vertebrates. Nocturnal congregations of certain species have been suggested as critical for late summer West Nile virus amplification. We evaluated the hypothesis that house sparrow (P. domesticus) and/or great-tailed grackle (Q. mexicanus) communal roost sites (n=22 and n=5, respectively) in a primarily suburban environment were spatially associated with West Nile virus transmission indices during the 2010 outbreak of human neurological disease in metropolitan Phoenix. Spatial associations between human case residences and communal roosts were non-significant for house sparrows, and were negative for great-tailed grackle. Several theories that explain these observations are discussed, including the possibility that grackle communal roosts are protective.

Sarcocystis sp. parasites in the Mexican Great-tailed Grackle (Quiscalus mexicanus), Bronzed Cowbird (Molothrus aeneus), and Stripe-headed Sparrow (Aimophila ruficauda)

Veterinaria México OA ISSN: 2448-6760Cómo citar este artículo:Sánchez-Godoy FD, Chávez-Maya F, Méndez-Bernal A, García-Espinosa G, Guerrero-Molina C, Ledesma-Martínez N, et al. Sarcocystis sp. en zanates (Quiscalus mexicanus), tordos (Molothrus aeneus) y gorriones (Aimophila ruficauda) de México. Veterinaria México OA. 2014;1(2). doi: 10.21753/vmoa.1.2.336.El objetivo es describir las características morfológicas, ultraestructurales, la reacción en cadena de la polimerasa, el patrón de polimorfismo de longitud de fragmentos de restricción (PCR-RFLP), la secuencia y el análisis filogenético de un fragmento del espacio de transcripción interno (ITS-1). Para ello se usaron los iniciadores 25/396 de Sarcocystis sp. detectados en el músculo de zanates, tordos y gorriones de México. Se estudiaron 15 aves con sarcocistosis en el músculo esquelético: siete zanates (Quiscalus mexicanus), seis tordos (Molothrus aeneus) y dos gorriones (Aimophila ruficauda). En la histopatología se observaron quistes parasitarios maduros de pared delgada. Ultraestructuralmente la pared de los quistes consiste de una capa granular con protrusiones “vilares” con microtúbulos. Los bradizoitos miden 4.1 X 1.6 µm y los micronemas aparecieron en el tercio anterior del conoide. Para la identificación molecular, se realizó PCR-RFLP utilizando un fragmento específico del ITS-1 amplificado con los iniciadores 25/396 y digerido con la enzima Hinf I. El fragmento no presentó sitio de corte para Hind III. Las secuencias obtenidas de Sarcocystis de las tres diferentes especies de aves presentaron una similitud de 100% entre ellas; cuando estas secuencias se compararon con la base de datos (GenBank) se encontró 96% de similitud con secuencias de S. neurona. El análisis filogenético mostró que las secuencias en estudio presentaron una topología distinta a las secuencias consignadas para S. neurona en los Estados Unidos de América y en América del Sur, y no estaban relacionadas con ningún grupo previamente reportado. Aunque la morfología y el análisis molecular sugieren ampliamente, que se trata de S. neurona y que estas aves pueden ser huéspedes intermediarios de estos parásitos, es necesario llevar a cabo estudios moleculares con fragmentos de DNA adicionales, combinados con pruebas biológicas, para identificar por completo a este parásito. Este es el primer reporte de Sarcocystis sp. en aves silvestres en México y podría tratarse de S. neurona.Figura 1. Músculo esquelético de muslo y pierna con abundante cantidad de estructuras parasitarias de Sarcocystis (flechas). Los quistes son de color blanco, ondulados y están orientados sobre el eje longitudinal del músculo.

Aztec introduction of the great-tailed grackle in ancient Mesoamerica: Formal defense of the Sahaguntine historical account

The historical account of Aztec Emperor Auitztol’s introduction of the great-tailed grackle Quiscalus mexicanus into the Valley of Mexico (1486–1502) is significant because it documents human translocation of wild birds in Mexico over 500 years ago, before the Spanish Conquest of that land. In the present paper, which defends the account from writings that dispute it, I first review the evidence of how the account was obtained and show that its many details are consistent with what is known from other sources about both the great-tailed grackle and the Aztecs (Nahuas). I then review and examine all published criticisms of the account and explain in detail why they are wrong. The critics have to date presented no persuasive evidence to support their speculation that the Aztecs confused, or might have confused, a natural invasion for an introduction. In contrast to these critics, Bernardino de Sahagun’s research group in the 1500s presented a highly credible, peer-reviewed historical account that documented Aztec introduction of the great-tailed grackle. The pioneering work of these Renaissance Mexican scholars continues to stand as one of the most important records of invasive alien species introduction in ancient times.

Comparison of capture and escape rates between different types of portable cowbird traps

ABSTRACTControl of brown‐headed cowbirds (Molothrus ater) is often advocated to reduce parasitism and improve nesting success of sensitive populations of passerine birds, but little information is available in the literature concerning the relative effectiveness of different types of cowbird traps or the effects of these traps on non‐target species. We used portable traps to capture cowbirds in 2003–2007 at 3 study areas in southern Nevada and western Arizona. We compared the effectiveness of traps with flat tops versus funnel‐shaped tops in 2005 and compared entrance slots of 2 different widths in 2006–2007. Traps with funnel‐shaped tops had higher cowbird capture rates and lower escape rates than did flat‐topped traps. Funnel‐topped traps also had a higher capture rate of non‐target species. Funnel‐topped traps with a 3.8‐cm‐wide entrance slot had a higher capture rate for male cowbirds than did identical traps with a 3.2‐cm‐wide entrance slot. Capture rates for female cowbirds did not differ between slot sizes, nor did escape rates for either males or females. Capture rates for non‐target species did not differ between slot widths, but wider slots captured larger bodied species (e.g., white‐winged dove [Zenaida asiatica] and great‐tailed grackle [Quiscalus mexicanus]) that were not seen in the traps with narrower slots in the years when both slot widths were tested. Cowbird traps with a funnel‐topped design should be used to maximize the number of cowbirds captured and removed from a site. A slot width of 3.2 cm may minimize non‐target captures, particularly of larger bodied species, while still allowing effective removal of female cowbirds. © 2014 The Wildlife Society.

Avian Hosts of West Nile Virus in Arizona

West Nile virus (WNV) causes sporadic outbreaks of human encephalitis in Phoenix, Arizona. To identify amplifying hosts of WNV in the Phoenix area, we blood-sampled resident birds and measured antibody prevalence following an outbreak in the East Valley of metropolitan Phoenix during summer, 2010. House sparrow (Passer domesticus), house finch (Haemorhous mexicanus), great-tailed grackle (Quiscalus mexicanus), and mourning dove (Zenaida macroura) accounted for most WNV infections among locally resident birds. These species roost communally after early summer breeding. In September 2010, Culex vector-avian host contact was 3-fold greater at communal bird roosts compared with control sites, as determined by densities of resting mosquitoes with previous vertebrate contact (i.e., blood-engorged or gravid mosquitoes). Because of the low competence of mourning doves, these were considered weak amplifiers but potentially effective free-ranging sentinels. Highly competent sparrows, finches, and grackles were predicted to be key amplifying hosts for WNV in suburban Phoenix.

A Test of the Nonlinearity Hypothesis in Great‐tailed Grackles (Quiscalus mexicanus)

AbstractHighly aroused or scared animals may produce a variety of sounds that sound harsh and are somewhat unpredictable. These sounds frequently contain nonlinear acoustic phenomena, and these nonlinearities may elicit arousal or alarm responses in humans and many animals. We designed a playback experiment to elucidate whether specific nonlinear phenomena can elicit increased responsiveness in great‐tailed grackles (Quiscalus mexicanus). We broadcast two control sounds (a 0.5‐s, 3‐kHz pure tone and the song of tropical kingbirds (Tyrannus melancholicus) and three test sounds that all began with a 0.4‐s, 3‐kHz pure tone and ended with 0.1 s of either a 1‐ to 5‐kHz band of white noise, an abrupt frequency jump to 1 kHz, or an abrupt frequency jump to 5 kHz. In response to these three nonlinear phenomena, grackles decreased their relaxed behavior (walking, foraging, and preening) and increased looking. A second experiment looked at the rapidity of the time course of frequency change and found that the abrupt frequency jump from 3 to 1 kHz, as opposed to a gradual downward frequency modulation over the same bandwidth, was uniquely arousing. These results suggest that while nonlinear phenomena may be generally evocative, frequency jumps may be the most evocative in great‐tailed grackles. Future studies in other systems can evaluate this general hypothesis.

Host Selection of Potential West Nile Virus Vectors in Puerto Barrios, Guatemala, 2007

The selection of vertebrate hosts by Culex mosquitoes relative to West Nile virus (WNV) transmission in neotropical countries such as Guatemala is not described. This study determined the feeding patterns of Cx. quinquefasciatus and Cx. nigripalpus and estimated the relative contribution of two common and frequently infected wild bird species, Turdus grayi and Quiscalus mexicanus, to WNV transmission. Engorged mosquitoes were collected from rural and urban habitats after the dry and wet seasons in the Department of Izabal in 2007. Host selection by Cx. nigripalpus varied significantly between urban and rural habitats. Both Cx. quinquefasciatus and Cx. nigripalpus fed predominantly on chickens and other domestic animals. Blood meals from wild birds were rare, accounting for 1.1% of blood meals identified from Cx. quinquefasciatus and 6.5% of blood meals from Cx. nigripalpus. Transmission of WNV by these two mosquito species may be dampened by extensive feeding on reservoir-incompetent hosts.

Response of brown anoles Anolis sagrei to multimodal signals from a native and novel predator

Abstract Multiple studies have focused on the importance of single modalities (visual, auditory, olfactory) in eliciting anti-predator behavior, however multiple channels are often engaged simultaneously. While examining responses to multiple cues can potentially reveal more complex behavioral responses, little is known about how multimodal processing evolves. By contrasting response to familiar and novel predators, insights can be gained into the evolution of multimodal responses. We studied brown anoles’ (Anolis sagrei) response to acoustic and visual predatory cues of a common potential predator, the great-tailed grackle Quiscalus mexicanus and to the American kestrel Falco sparverius, a species found in other populations but not present in our study population. We observed anole behavior before and after a stimulus and quantified rates of looking, display, and locomotion. Anoles increased their rate of locomotion in response to grackle models, an effect modulated by grackle vocalizations. No such response or modulation was seen when anoles were presented with kestrel stimuli. This suggests that the degree of sophistication of anole response to predators is experience dependent and that relaxed selection can result in reduced anti-predator response following loss of predators.

West Nile Virus Ecology in a Tropical Ecosystem in Guatemala

West Nile virus ecology has yet to be rigorously investigated in the Caribbean Basin. We identified a transmission focus in Puerto Barrios, Guatemala, and established systematic monitoring of avian abundance and infection, seroconversions in domestic poultry, and viral infections in mosquitoes. West Nile virus transmission was detected annually between May and October from 2005 to 2008. High temperature and low rainfall enhanced the probability of chicken seroconversions, which occurred in both urban and rural sites. West Nile virus was isolated from Culex quinquefasciatus and to a lesser extent, from Culex mollis/Culex inflictus, but not from the most abundant Culex mosquito, Culex nigripalpus. A calculation that combined avian abundance, seroprevalence, and vertebrate reservoir competence suggested that great-tailed grackle (Quiscalus mexicanus) is the major amplifying host in this ecosystem. West Nile virus transmission reached moderate levels in sentinel chickens during 2007, but less than that observed during outbreaks of human disease attributed to West Nile virus in the United States.

ESTUDIO SOBRE PELIGRO AVIARIO: ANÁLISIS DEL RIESGO DE IMPACTOS ENTRE AVES Y AERONAVES EN EL AEROPUERTO INTERNACIONAL AUGUSTO C. SANDINO, MANAGUA, NICARAGUA

El peligro aviario es el riesgo de coliciones entre aves y aeronaves. Para reducir ese peligro es necesario entender la naturaleza de las aves que habitan dentro y alrededor del aeropuerto y clasificarlas numericamente en base a la peligrosidad que representan, conociendo a la vez las estaciones del año, los meses del año, horas del día, condiciones climáticas, focos de atracción (cobertura, alimentación y agua) que incrementan la abundancia y la riqueza de aves en las áreas aeroportuarias. Para obtener la información se seleccionaron dos sitios de observación: uno en las áreas verdes alrededor de la pista de aterrizaje, con el objetivo de registrar las especies de aves hacen uso de este sitio permanente o temporalmente, y otro en la torre de control, para determinar rutas de aves de mayor peso, gregarias y de alto vuelo en un radio de 3000 m con centro en la torre de control. Las especies observadas con mayor frecuencia en la pista de aterrizaje fueron: Hirundo rustica, Quiscalus mexicanus, Molothrus aeneus, Columbina talpacoti y Columba livia. Desde la torre de control se observaron con mayor frecuencia: Coragyps atratus, Zenaida asiatica, Molotrus aeneus y Quiscalus mexicanus. En la pista de aterrizaje y desde la torre de control la abundancia y riqueza de aves no varió significativamente a lo largo de los meses del año. En la pista de aterrizaje la abundancia incrementa significativamente en el período seco en horarios de 06:00-07:00 am, principalmente por la presencia de Q. mexicanus y H. rustica. La riqueza en el periodo seco y la abundancia y riqueza en el período lluvioso no varió significativamente. Desde la torre de control no se registraron incrementos significativos de la abundancia y riqueza de aves en el período seco, pero si de la abundancia en el período lluvioso, con alzas a las 11:00 y 13:00, principalmente por la mayores actividades de la especie C. atratus a esas horas. La abundancia de aves en la pista de aterrizaje dependió de las condiciones climáticas, aumentando al aumentar la precipitación y la nubosidad y reduciéndose al aumentar la velocidad del viento y la temperatura. La actividad de las aves observadas desde la torre de control no varió significativamente con las variaciones climáticas diarias. Las especies que hacen mayor uso del enmallado perimetral del aeropuerto para perchar fueron: Passers domesticus, Columbina talpacoti, Tyrannus melancholicus, Crotophaga sulcirostris y Tyrannus forficatus. Los sitios preferidos para anidación dentro del aeropuerto fueron árboles de Almendra (Terminalia catapa), Mango (Manguifera indica) y dentro del las instalacones del cuerpo de Bomberos, torre de control y los hangares. Se concluye que C. atratus y Q. mexicanus son las especies que más peligro representan para la aviación, seguidas en menor escala de C. livia, C. talpocati, H. rustica y M. aeneus. Los sectores norte, oeste y una parte del sector sur del aeropuerto son áreas de mayor riesgo aviario por una mayor frecuencia de observación de C. atratus en esa zona. La especie Q. mexicanus esta distribuida principalmente en el sector sureste. Las fuentes de atracción para las aves van desde sitios ideales para hábitat, refugio, anidación y perchaje hasta fuente de alimentos que incluyen vegetales, insectos, vertebrados, basureros y mataderos. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5377/calera.v11i16.750 La Calera Vol. 11, No 16 p. 33-42/junio 2011

Introduction of the Great-tailed Grackle (Quiscalus mexicanus) by Aztec Emperor Auitzotl: Provenance of the historical account

ABSTRACT. The introduction of the Great-tailed Grackle (Quiscalus mexicanus) into the Valley of Mexico by Aztec Emperor Auitzotl (1486–1502) is the earliest documented case of human-mediated bird introduction in the Western Hemisphere. I investigated the origin of the account of this ancient translocation and the team that collected it: Bernardino de Sahagun's research group of elite native scholars from the Royal College of the Holy Cross, Tlatelolco. These scholars, the top academic research group in 16th-century Mexico, used expert native consultants as sources of information and an early form of peer review to detect errors and omissions. The account first appears in extant drafts written by the research group during its field work in Tlatelolco (1561–1565), 59–79 years after Auitzotl introduced the grackles. The account then successfully passed through peer review in Tenochtitlan before being added to the Florentine Codex. The research group was composed of graduates, professors, and an administrator...