Amount Of Sulfur Dioxide Research Articles

How well are aerosol–cloud interactions represented in climate models? – Part 1: Understanding the sulfate aerosol production from the 2014–15 Holuhraun eruption

Abstract. For over 6 months, the 2014–2015 effusive eruption at Holuhraun, Iceland, injected considerable amounts of sulfur dioxide (SO2) into the lower troposphere with a daily rate of up to one-third of the global emission rate, causing extensive air pollution across Europe. The large injection of SO2, which oxidises to form sulfate aerosol (SO42-), provides a natural experiment offering an ideal opportunity to scrutinise state-of-the-art general circulation models' (GCMs) representation of aerosol–cloud interactions (ACIs). Here we present Part 1 of a two-part model inter-comparison using the Holuhraun eruption as a framework to analyse ACIs. We use SO2 retrievals from the Infrared Atmospheric Sounding Interferometer (IASI) instrument and ground-based measurements of SO2 and SO42- mass concentrations across Europe, in conjunction with a trajectory analysis using the Hybrid Single Particle Lagrangian Integrated Trajectory (HYSPLIT) model, to assess the spatial and chemical evolution of the volcanic plume as simulated by five GCMs and a chemical transport model (CTM). IASI retrievals of plume altitude and SO2 column load reveal that the volcanic perturbation is largely contained within the lower troposphere. Compared to the satellite observations, the models capture the spatial evolution and vertical variability of the plume reasonably well, although the models often overestimate the plume altitude. HYSPLIT trajectories are used to attribute to Holuhraun emissions 111 instances of elevated sulfurous surface mass concentrations recorded at European Monitoring and Evaluation Programme (EMEP) stations during September and October 2014. Comparisons with the simulated concentrations show that the modelled ratio of SO2 to SO42- during these pollution episodes is often underestimated and overestimated for the young and mature plume, respectively. Models with finer vertical resolutions near the surface are found to better capture these elevated sulfurous ground-level concentrations. Using an exponential function to describe the decay of observed surface mass concentration ratios of SO2 to SO42- with plume age, the in-plume oxidation rate constant is estimated as 0.032 ± 0.002 h−1 (1.30 ± 0.08 d e-folding time), with a near-vent ratio of 25 ± 5 (µg m−3 of SO2 / µg m−3 of SO42-). The majority of the corresponding derived modelled oxidation rate constants are lower than the observed estimate. This suggests that the representation of the oxidation pathway/s in the simulated plumes is too slow. Overall, despite their coarse spatial resolutions, the six models show reasonable skill in capturing the spatial and chemical evolution of the Holuhraun plume. This capable representation of the underlying aerosol perturbation is essential to enable the investigation of the eruption's impact on ACIs in the second part of this study.

Transient acetaldehyde production by SO2-producing <i>Saccharomyces cerevisiae</i> promotes the survival of <i>Oenococcus oeni</i> during co-fermentation

Stuck or sluggish malolactic fermentation (MLF) can be problematic in stressful wine conditions, particularly white and sparkling base musts/wines. In these cases, knowledge of yeast-bacteria strain compatibility and the amount of sulfur dioxide (SO2) a yeast strain produces are important considerations for successful MLF. Here, laboratory- and pilot-scale co-fermentations in Chardonnay were used to investigate the effect of yeast-derived SO2 on Oenococcus oeni survival. Although yeast-derived SO2 is generally inhibitory, we show that SO2 production (to approximately 65 mg/L) can be uncoupled from O. oeni survival in the early stages of co-fermentation. Bacterial survival in the presence of specific SO2-producing yeast strains was correlated with the early, transient formation of high acetaldehyde concentrations. Oenococcus oeni survival coincided with molecular SO2 concentrations remaining below an extremely low threshold of inhibition, which exponentially increased from approximately 3–6 µg/L in the first three days of co-fermentation. Strain-dependent sensitivity of O. oeni to bound SO2 remains a possibility, although the extent and mechanism of such inhibition by the SO2 adduct during co-fermentation remain unclear. The choice of co-inoculation yeast strain also influenced wine diacetyl concentration, which was only detected in wines co-inoculated with high SO2-producing S. cerevisiae strains. The wines with high diacetyl concentrations were found to be distinct by a sensory panel, with comparatively high citation frequency for a buttery sensory attribute. Both the SO2- and acetaldehyde production capacity of yeasts are, therefore, seen as meaningful co-inoculation selection criteria. The range of yeast strains suitable for MLF induction by co-inoculation could be widened to include SO2-producing strains that transiently produce an early, high concentration of acetaldehyde. The effects of low, equilibrium concentrations of molecular SO2 should also be considered in conjunction with total SO2 as a measure of SO2 toxicity towards O. oeni following co-inoculation.

ANALYSIS OF THE IMPACT OF POLLUTANTS ON HUMANS AND THE ENVIRONMENT

This article is devoted to the study of the risk levels of the environment and public health from exposure to various pollutants, such as: suspended solids, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide and oxide, carbon monoxide, as well as copper, on the territory of Ivanovo. It is shown that all registered pollutants at stationary posts No. 1 and 2 in Ivanovo cause harm to the human body. Averaged data were obtained for the period from 2005-2019, the average annual wind rose for the city of Ivanovo, from which it can be seen that the wind rose has the main wind direction to the south, west and southwest. The calculated values indicate a significant level of risk for the development of diseases in the Ivanovo population that lead to damage to the respiratory organs, skin, nervous system, eyes and metabolic disorders. Thus, the diseases of the endocrine system, eating disorders and metabolic disorders in Ivanovo residents, during the period under review, are most influenced by suspended substances, nitrogen dioxide and benz (a)pyrene. For respiratory diseases - sulfur dioxide and nitrogen, carbon monoxide and nitrogen, as well as benz(a)pyrene. For diseases of the eye and its accessory apparatus - sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide and phenol. Diseases of the nervous system and diseases of the skin, subcutaneous tissue are most affected by carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide and dioxide, formaldehyde and benz (a)pyrene. In this paper, a forecast of the volume of pollutants for 2024 is made. The data obtained indicate that the amount of sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide and oxide, carbon monoxide, suspended solids, as well as copper will increase. Which will lead to adverse effects, both on the soil and on the human body.

Severe volcanic SO2 exposure and respiratory morbidity in the Icelandic population \u2013 a register study

BackgroundThe Holuhraun volcanic eruption September 2014 to February 2015 emitted large amounts of sulfur dioxide (SO2). The aim of this study was to determine the association between volcanic SO2 gases on general population respiratory health some 250 km from the eruption site, in the Icelandic capital area.MethodsRespiratory health outcomes were: asthma medication dispensing (AMD) from the Icelandic Medicines Register, medical doctor consultations in primary care (PCMD) and hospital emergency department visits (HED) in Reykjavík (population: 215000) for respiratory disease from 1 January 2010 to 31 December 2014. The associations between daily counts of health events and daily mean SO2 concentration and high SO2 levels (24-h mean SO2 > 125 μg/m3) were analysed using generalized additive models.ResultsAfter the eruption began, AMD was higher than before (129.4 vs. 158.4 individuals per day, p < 0.05). For PCMD and HED, there were no significant differences between the number of daily events before and after the eruption (142.2 vs 144.8 and 18.3 vs 17.5, respectively). In regression analysis adjusted for other pollutants, SO2 was associated with estimated increases in AMD by 0.99% (95% CI 0.39–1.58%) per 10 μg/m3 at lag 0–2, in PCMD for respiratory causes 1.26% (95% CI 0.72–1.80%) per 10 μg/m3 SO2 at lag 0–2, and in HED by 1.02% (95% CI 0.02–2.03%) per 10 μg/m3 SO2 at lag 0–2. For days over the health limit, the estimated increases were 10.9% (95% CI 2.1–19.6%), 17.2% (95% CI 10.0–24.4%) for AMD and PCMD. Dispensing of short-acting medication increased significantly by 1.09% (95% CI 0.49–1.70%), and PCMD for respiratory infections and asthma and COPD diagnoses and increased significantly by 1.12% (95% CI 0.54–1.71%) and 2.08% (1.13–3.04%).ConclusionHigh levels of volcanic SO2 are associated with increases in dispensing of AMD, and health care utilization in primary and tertiary care. Individuals with prevalent respiratory disease may be particularly susceptible.

Return to different climate states by reducing sulphate aerosols under future CO2 concentrations

It is generally believed that anthropogenic aerosols cool the atmosphere; therefore, they offset the global warming resulting from greenhouse gases to some extent. Reduction in sulphate, a primary anthropogenic aerosol, is necessary for mitigating air pollution, which causes atmospheric warming. Here, the changes in the surface air temperature under various anthropogenic emission amounts of sulphur dioxide (SO2), which is a precursor of sulphate aerosol, are simulated under both present and doubled carbon dioxide (CO2) concentrations with a climate model. No previous studies have conducted explicit experiments to estimate the temperature changes due to individual short-lived climate forcers (SLCFs) in different climate states with atmosphere–ocean coupled models. The simulation results clearly show that reducing SO2 emissions at high CO2 concentrations will significantly enhance atmospheric warming in comparison with that under the present CO2 concentration. In the high latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere, the temperature change that will occur when fuel SO2 emissions reach zero under a doubled CO2 concentration will be approximately 1.0 °C, while this value will be approximately 0.5 °C under the present state. This considerable difference can affect the discussion of the 1.5 °C/2 °C target in the Paris Agreement.

Long-range transport of volcanic aerosols over South Africa: a case study of the Calbuco volcanic eruption in Chile during April 2015

ABSTRACTIn response to the observation of a large amount of sulphur dioxide (SO2) over the Republic of South Africa (RSA) during April 2015, the present study was formulated to explain the origin and contributing factors to such an increase. The Calbuco volcanic eruption in Chile occurred on 22 and 23 April 2015 and this study investigates the possible transport of SO2 and volcanic aerosols from the eruption site to RSA with the aid of model and satellite data. Time-averaged maps of SO2 and aerosol optical depth (AOD) from the Ozone Monitoring Instrument (OMI) and the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS), showed SO2 and AOD leaving Calbuco and reaching RSA on 28 April 2015. The Hybrid Single Particle Lagrangian Integrated Trajectory (HYSPLIT) model forward trajectories showed that air masses, in the altitude range from 15 to 20 km, left the eruption site and travelled towards RSA. The zonal extinction coefficient profiles and total backscatter height-time-colour map from the Cloud-Aerosol Lidar and Infrared Pathfinder Satellite Observation (CALIPSO) also confirmed the presence of volcanic aerosols from 28 April 2015 to 16 May 2015. The stratospheric feature observed by CALISO vertical feature mask (VFM) confirmed that these were indeed volcanic aerosols.

The impacts of a Laki-like eruption on the present Swedish society

In this study, we analyse and discuss the possible impacts on the Swedish society of a volcanic eruption on Iceland, emitting ash particles and large quantities of sulphur dioxide. A scenario was developed, based on the historical Laki eruption of 1783–1784, to describe the content of a potential sulphur fog over time in Sweden. Due to its high complexity and the many uncertainties in the underpinning scientific data, the scenario was developed using a cross-disciplinary approach incorporating experts from different scientific fields. An analysis of the impacts of the hazard on human health, environment and technical equipment was then performed and, finally, representatives from national authorities assessed the overall societal challenges in responding to the consequences of a massive volcanic eruption. The analysis shows that it is the peak concentrations of sulphur dioxide and sulphuric acid rather than the longer periods of moderate concentrations that contribute most to the negative consequences for human health and environment. Altogether, three societal challenges were identified: the ability to compile and disseminate relevant information fast enough, to perform continuous measurements of concentrations of different substances in affected areas and to meet the large demand for medical care.

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The amount of sulphur dioxide (SO 2 ) emitted in 2008 during the ascent and extrusion of a lava dome in Galeras volcano was estimated and the behavior of emissions was compared with other parameters such as earthquakes associated with fluid motion and volcanic deformation. The flux of SO 2 is the parameter that begins to show the rise of the 2008 lava dome, the other parameters reflect similar behavior but with time lags. Using a wind speed average value of 5 m/s, was estimated that 334.947 tons of SO 2 were emitted into the atmosphere, equivalent to 2,2% of the global total annual volcanic emissions and 15,9% of the annual emissions of the South America subduction zone volcanoes. Keywords: Galeras volcano, Sulphur Dioxide, lava dome.

Effect of gases and particulate matter from electricity generation process on the radial growth of teak plantations surrounding Mae Moh power plant, Lampang province

The objectives of this study were to investigate radial growth patterns and influences of polluting gases and particulate matter on the radial growth of teak plantations surrounding the Mae Moh Power Plant. Twenty-four 32-year-old teak trees were selected from Mae Jang and Mae Moh plantations, which were 5 km and 15 km from the Mae Moe power plant, respectively. Forty-eight sample cores were collected from the 24 trees (two cores per tree). The growth patterns of all the cores were analyzed following the standard methods of dendrochronology. The relationships between the growth pattern and the amounts of sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide and particulate matter were measured as average daily rates and then analyzed. The study showed that the best-fit model for the relationship between the radial current annual increment at breast height (CAIdbh) and time (Y) was an exponential equation. The fitted equations were: CAIdbh = 10.657e(−0.031Y) for Mae Moh plantation and CAIdbh = 12.518e(−0.032Y) for Mae Jang plantation. The coefficient of determination for the fitted equations was 0.410 and 0.423 for the Mae Moh and Mae Jang plantations, respectively. Moreover, carbon monoxide (CO) and sulfur dioxide (SO2) had a statistically significant effect on radial teak growth (RT) in the Mae Jang plantation, with a coefficient of determination of 0.69 (RTmj = 0.571 + 0.429(CO) − 0.023(SO2)).

Ethylene–SO2 interaction under sooting conditions: PAH formation

The formation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) and soot from the pyrolysis of ethylene in the presence of different amounts of sulphur dioxide (SO2) and at different reaction temperatures (1075–1475K) was studied. The sixteen PAH classified by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) as priority pollutants were quantified by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS). Soot formed was collected on a filter at the reactor outlet. The concentration of the main gases obtained was also determined. The harmful potential or toxicity of the EPA–PAH, through the B[a]P-eq, has been evaluated together with the yield to EPA–PAH. The main results show that for a low SO2 concentration (0.3%), the formation of EPA–PAH and toxicity increase, while high concentrations of SO2 decrease the yield to soot, EPA–PAH and B[a]P-eq concentration. The highest concentration of SO2 shifts the maximum concentration of EPA–PAH to lower temperatures.

Effects of Glutathione and Ascorbic Acid Addition on the CIELab Chromatic Characteristics of Muscat Ottonel Wines

Glutathione (GSH) and ascorbic acid (AA) are often added as antioxidants in wines for a better preservation of aroma. However, depending on the dosage of these substances, changes in colour may occur in the wines. The paper presents the effect of the addition of glutathione, with or without ascorbic acid, on the colour of Muscat Ottonel wines after 4 months of ageing in bottles. The dosage of ascorbic acid varied between 30 and 70 mg/l and that of glutathione between 10 and 100 mg/l, while in the samples where both glutathione and ascorbic acid were added the latter was kept constant at 30 mg/l. All wines contained the same amount of sulphur dioxide at the moment of addition, namely 80 mg/l total and 42 mg/l free, respectively. The analysis took into account 3 groups of samples: only with glutathione, only with ascorbic acid and with combination of glutathione and ascorbic acid. The CIELab colour parameters were determined and the colour components compared for the three groups and the control. The results showed that during storage the colour of wines evolved, parameter a showing in most samples a shift toward more red component. The most significant colour change was recorded for the samples treated only with glutathione, while the presence of ascorbic acid, with or without glutathione, lowered the value of parameter a. A synergistic effect in lowering the values of both parameter a and b was observed in the samples treated with combinations of ascorbic acid and glutathione at higher concentrations. The results suggest that a combination of glutathione and ascorbic acid may confer better stability of colour of white wines during storage.

Properties of platinum-containing glass-fiber catalysts in the SO2 oxidation reaction

SO2 oxidation catalysts containing small amounts (0.01–0.03 mass%) of platinum at the zirconia-promoted silica glass fibers (Pt-GFCs) demonstrate relatively high activity at moderate temperatures (below 400 °C) and the appropriate thermal stability (up to 700 °C). The catalytic activity of Pt-GFC in the SO2 oxidation reaction is provided by the small (< 1 nm) partially charged platinum clusters, while platinum in a form of large metal particles is practically inactive. Pt-GFCs have the high (up to ~20 mass%) sorption capacity with respect to SO2. Such sorption occurs via the interaction of SO2 with oxygen, either present in the gaseous reaction mixture or pre-adsorbed in the fresh GFC structure, with the possible formation of the intermediate sulfates in the glass bulk of the catalyst. Besides, Pt-GFC may effectively oxidize CO in the presence of significant amounts of sulfur dioxide.

Icelandic eruption is releasing unusual amounts of sulfur dioxide

Icelandic eruption is releasing unusual amounts of sulfur dioxide

Analysis of the Relationship between Desulfurization Treatment and Green Chemistry of Coal

The coal industry belongs to the energy industry of the mainstream, the use of coal in a wide range, the main applications of combustion. However, the coal contains large amounts of sulfur, in combustion process, encountered the incomplete combustion will produce large amounts of sulfur dioxide, serious impact on the natural environment. The coal desulfurization technology can largely reduce this pollution, green chemistry is in the desulfurization technology is established on the basis of a concept. This article focuses on the discussion about coal desulfurization and its relationship to green chemistry.

Direct Supplementation of Yeast with Lipids as a Means to Reduce Sulfur Dioxide Formation

In traditional brewing practice, yeast is cropped and repitched in subsequent fermentations. However, at the end of fermentation, yeast are lipid-depleted and require lipid levels to be restored in order to initiate cellular growth. Adverse effects on biochemical fermentative processes are experienced if lipid levels are not restored to functioning levels. In such a situation, high levels of sulfur dioxide are produced, which may create issues for the brewery, necessitating a warning on the label if the level is not kept below 10 mg/L. This study investigates the supplementation of cropped brewer's yeast with a mixture of lipids, its effects on certain fermentation parameters, and its ability to reduce sulfur dioxide produced during fermentation of a synthetic media. Successful results were observed using this method, because a 64.3% reduction in total sulfur dioxide was obtained using the supplemented yeast. Cellular growth, under anaerobic conditions, was also improved with growth rates nearly four times that of the control. Although comparable final concentrations of ethanol were achieved in both fermentations, the supplemented fermentation produced ethanol at a faster rate, reducing overall fermentation time. In addition, production of higher alcohols was increased along with utilization of tested amino acids. Ethyl acetate and isoamyl acetate were tested to determine the impact of lipid supplementation on ester synthesis, because past studies have reported decreases in both. Only ethyl acetate was reduced by 7.5%, with no change in isoamyl acetate. The results indicate that direct yeast supplementation with lipids can be used as an effective means to reduce the amount of sulfur dioxide produced during fermentation while stimulating overall yeast growth.

Improved detection of sulphur dioxide in volcanic plumes using satellite‐based hyperspectral infrared measurements: Application to the Eyjafjallajökull 2010 eruption

The explosive phase of the eruption of the Eyjafjallajökull volcano in Iceland beginning on 14 April 2010 caused extensive disruption to aviation in Europe with serious social and economic consequences. Despite its impact, the explosive phase was modest in size and the amount of sulphur dioxide (SO2) released was low. The potential of hyperspectral thermal infrared measurements to discriminate emissions from similar events by measuring SO2 is examined using the Infrared Atmospheric Sounding Interferometer (IASI) on board MetOp‐A. The transported plume in the initial stages of the explosive phase contained low amounts of SO2 at low altitude which placed it at the detection limit of space‐based sensors used to monitor the volcanic threat to aviation using current methods. A recently developed technique for the fast retrieval of SO2 from IASI is applied in the context of the Eyjafjallajökull eruption to show that IASI is easily capable of sensing the SO2 in the plume at this stage where existing methods fail. The fast SO2 retrieval is calibrated against a fully quantitative optimal estimation retrieval of SO2 total column amount and plume altitude to derive the detection limit for the plume on 15 April 2010. An estimate of the general detection limit for the instrument is placed conservatively at 0.3 Dobson Units (DU) which is an order of magnitude lower than previously thought.

Adsorption of H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;S and SO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; on Activated Carbon Fibers Modified by Ammonium Nitrate

The enhancement effect of using PAN-based carbon fibers surface modified by ammonium nitrate for removing SO2 and H2S in moist air at room temperature was characterized and investigated. The pore structure of the samples so prepared was examined by adsorption measurement. Surface groups introduced by treatment with ammonium nitrate was assessed by xray photoelectron spectroscopy. The results show that the amount of sulfur dioxide and hydrogen sulfide adsorbed with the treated carbon fibers are increased by 112% and 93% and ammonium nitrate treatment improved original carbon fibers adsorption performance, not only by introducing nitrogen surface groups, but also by extending the surface area.

Energy utilization, environmental quality and sustainable economic development: Evidence from Shandong Province in China

Abstract Nowadays, sustainable economic development is the key issue in the world. In this paper, we take Shandong Province as an example to analyze the relationship between energy use, environmental quality and economic development. Through the study, we find that the correlation between nominal income per capita and environmental quality can be shown in Kuznets inverted U-shaped curve. After 2020, with per capita income increasing, total amount of environmental pollutants will decline slowly; The relationship between per capita income and discharge amount of sulfur dioxide is consistent with EKC theory and is shown in inverted U-shaped curve, but the per capita income has no similar pattern with the other three environmental indicators; Although efficiency of energy utilization in Shandong Province increased steadily in recent years, but the rapid economic growth heavily depends on natural resources, and extensive mode of economic growth remains. Irrational industrial structure is the main cause for structural unbalance of energy consumption and environmental degradation in Shandong Province. It is argued that readjusting industrial structure and improving environment system of environmental pollution are the primary issuesin the reform.

National Indicators Show Biodiversity Progress

In their Report “Global biodiversity: Indicators of recent declines” (28 May, p. [1164][1]), S. H. M. Butchart and colleagues commented that on a global scale there is little evidence that the rate of biodiversity decline is slowing and some evidence that it is increasing. However, there are some encouraging stories at national levels. For instance, the Chinese government has implemented biodiversity conservation action plans. The proportion of China's gross domestic product invested in environmental pollution control and forestry conservation has increased since 1990 and exceeded 1% since 2001; the number of nature reserves was 32 times the number in 1978, and the area devoted to reserves was 120 times the area in reserves in 1978 ([ 1 ][2]). There is more good news: Some indicators of pressures on biodiversity show declining trends. The total discharge of chemical oxygen demand and the amount of sulfur dioxide in waste gas, two nationally targeted pollutants, decreased 9.66 and 13.14%, respectively, as compared with that of 2005 ([ 2 ][3]). The discharge of toxic and harmful pollutants in wastewater, the emission intensity of chemical oxygen demand of key industries, the emission of soot dust and industrial dust in waste gases, and the discharge of solid wastes decreased annually 12.24, 21.62, 5.16, and 16.89% since 1998, respectively ([ 1 ][2]). Some indicators of the state of biodiversity showed recovering trends. The annual average net primary productivity, including forest resources as well as the area and growing stock of natural forests, has been increasing in the past two decades ([ 1 ][2], [ 3 ][4]); there is also a steady increase in the Marine Trophic Index from 1997 until now ([ 1 ][2]). Although substantial progress toward the 2010 target was made ([ 4 ][5]), we agree that China still faces severe environmental pressures, because total pollutant emissions are still high, and trends toward the loss of habitats, threatened species, and genetic resources are not effectively checked ([ 1 ][2]). 1. [↵][6] 1. H. G. Xu 2. et al ., BioScience 59, 843 (2009). [OpenUrl][7][CrossRef][8][Web of Science][9] 2. [↵][10] Ministry of Environmental Protection of China ([www.mep.gov.cn/zhxx/hjyw/201005/t20100514_189487.htm][11] [in Chinese]). 3. [↵][12] 1. Z. Q. Gao, 2. J. Y. Liu , Chin. Sci. Bull. 53, 317 (2008). [OpenUrl][13][CrossRef][14] 4. [↵][15] Ministry of Environmental Protection of China, China's Fourth National Report on Implementation of the Convention on Biological Diversity (China Environmental Sciences Press, Beijing, 2009). [1]: /lookup/doi/10.1126/science.1187512 [2]: #ref-1 [3]: #ref-2 [4]: #ref-3 [5]: #ref-4 [6]: #xref-ref-1-1 View reference 1 in text [7]: {openurl}?query=rft_id%253Dinfo%253Adoi%252F10.1525%252Fbio.2009.59.10.6%26rft.genre%253Darticle%26rft_val_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Ajournal%26ctx_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ctx_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Actx [8]: /lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1525/bio.2009.59.10.6&link_type=DOI [9]: /lookup/external-ref?access_num=000271420000007&link_type=ISI [10]: #xref-ref-2-1 View reference 2 in text [11]: http://www.mep.gov.cn/zhxx/hjyw/201005/t20100514_189487.htm [12]: #xref-ref-3-1 View reference 3 in text [13]: {openurl}?query=rft_id%253Dinfo%253Adoi%252F10.1007%252Fs11434-008-0064-4%26rft.genre%253Darticle%26rft_val_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Ajournal%26ctx_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ctx_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Actx [14]: /lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1007/s11434-008-0064-4&link_type=DOI [15]: #xref-ref-4-1 View reference 4 in text

Life Cycle Inventory Analysis of the Production of a High-performance Foam Blowing Agent HFC-245fa (1,1,1,3,3-pentafluoropropane)

A life cycle inventory analysis is described for the production of HFC-245fa (1,1,1,3,3-pentafluoropropane) from basic raw materials to the pure product ready for shipment to customers. The analysis was based on typical industrial operations, assumed to be located in southern USA. It showed the mineral requirements to be mainly salt, fluorspar, sulphur, and limestone, together with natural gas and oil used as feedstock. Energy required in processing totaled 4.4 tons of CO2 equivalent per ton of product, including the energy required to transport raw materials and intermediates between facilities and also a 2% contribution from the release of greenhouse gases other than CO2. Other environmental releases were waste salt brine (to the sea), mineral tailings (landfilled at the fluorspar mine) and anhydrous calcium sulphate (to inert landfill). The quantities of sulphur dioxide and volatile organic compounds released into the atmosphere were calculated to be 5 and 1 Kg per ton, respectively. Spent catalysts are not inert and were assumed to be sent to specialist contractors for reclamation or disposal; the transport and energy requirements for this were also included. The process energy requirement amounts to &lt;5% of the global warming potential of HFC-245fa indicating that the principal way of reducing the climate impact of HFC-245fa is to minimize emissions of the material itself during use and during disposal of equipment containing it.