Quantitative Scanning Transmission Electron Microscopy Research Articles

Atom counting based on Voronoi averaged STEM intensities using a crosstalk correction scheme

If quantitative scanning transmission electron microscopy is used for very precise thickness measurements with atomic resolution, it is commonly referred to as »atom counting«. Due to scattering and the finite probe extent the signal recorded in one atomic column is dependent not only on its own height but also on the height of its neighbours. Especially for thicker specimens this crosstalk effect can have significant impact on the measured intensity. If it is not appropriately accounted for in the evaluation, it can result in a deterioration of accuracy that impedes the possibility of actual atom counting. However, as the number of possible neighbour configurations can be excessively large, a comprehensive consideration of all in the evaluation reference is neigh impossible. This work proposes a method that allows for the a-posteriori reduction of crosstalk during the evaluation by algebraic means. Based on a parametric model, which is described in detail in the article, the crosstalk is expressed by an invertible matrix. Applying the inverted matrix to the measurement yields crosstalk corrected intensity values with very little computational effort. These can subsequently be evaluated by direct comparison to simple reference data. The working principle of the method is presented on the example of crystalline gold. The crosstalk parametrisation is found by fitting a model to sets of specifically created multislice simulations. The parameters are given for both aberration corrected and uncorrected STEM. Subsequently the abilities and potential of the technique are assessed in simulative studies on multiple model systems including gold nanoparticles. Overall a significant and robust improvement of the attainable precision can be demonstrated making the proposed method a promising tool for reference-based atom counting.

Robust Local Thickness Estimation of Sub-Micrometer Specimen by 4D-STEM.

A quantitative four-dimensional scanning transmission electron microscopy (4D-STEM) imaging technique (q4STEM) for local thickness estimation across amorphous specimen such as obtained by focused ion beam (FIB)-milling of lamellae for (cryo-)TEM analysis is presented. This study is based on measuring spatially resolved diffraction patterns to obtain the angular distribution of electron scattering, or the ratio of integrated virtual dark and bright field STEM signals, and their quantitative evaluation using Monte Carlo simulations. The method is independent of signal intensity calibrations and only requires knowledge of the detector geometry, which is invariant for a given instrument. This study demonstrates that the method yields robust thickness estimates for sub-micrometer amorphous specimen using both direct detection and light conversion 2D-STEM detectors in a coincident FIB-SEM and a conventional SEM. Due to its facile implementation and minimal dose reauirements, it is anticipated that this method will find applications for in situ thickness monitoring during lamella fabrication of beam-sensitive materials.

On the origin of carrier localization in AlInAsSb digital alloy

We compared the photoluminescence (PL) properties of AlInAsSb digital alloy samples with different periods grown on GaSb (001) substrates by molecular beam epitaxy. Temperature-dependent S-shape behavior is observed and explained using a thermally activated redistribution model within a Gaussian distribution of localized states. There are two different mechanisms for the origin of the PL intensity quenching for the AlInAsSb digital alloy. The high-temperature activation energy E 1 is positively correlated with the interface thickness, whereas the low-temperature activation energy E 2 is negatively correlated with the interface thickness. A quantitative high-angle annular dark-field scanning transmission electron microscopy (HAADF-STEM) study shows that the interface quality improves as the interface thickness increases. Our results confirm that E 1 comes from carrier trapping at a state in the InSb interface layer, while E 2 originates from the exciton binding energy due to the roughness of the AlAs interface layer.

Quantitative Scanning Transmission Electron Microscopy for Materials Science: Imaging, Diffraction, Spectroscopy, and Tomography

Scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) is one of the most powerful characterization tools in materials science research. Due to instrumentation developments such as highly coherent electron sources, aberration correctors, and direct electron detectors, STEM experiments can examine the structure and properties of materials at length scales of functional devices and materials down to single atoms. STEM encompasses a wide array of flexible operating modes, including imaging, diffraction, spectroscopy, and 3D tomography experiments. This review outlines many common STEM experimental methods with a focus on quantitative data analysis and simulation methods, especially those enabled by open source software. The hope is to introduce both classic and new experimental methods to materials scientists and summarize recent progress in STEM characterization. The review also discusses the strengths and weaknesses of the various STEM methodologies and briefly considers promising future directions for quantitative STEM research.

Fast generation of calculated ADF-EDX scattering cross-sections under channelling conditions

Advanced materials often consist of multiple elements which are arranged in a complicated structure. Quantitative scanning transmission electron microscopy is useful to determine the composition and thickness of nanostructures at the atomic scale. However, significant difficulties remain to quantify mixed columns by comparing the resulting atomic resolution images and spectroscopy data with multislice simulations where dynamic scattering needs to be taken into account. The combination of the computationally intensive nature of these simulations and the enormous amount of possible mixed column configurations for a given composition indeed severely hamper the quantification process. To overcome these challenges, we here report the development of an incoherent non-linear method for the fast prediction of ADF-EDX scattering cross-sections of mixed columns under channelling conditions. We first explain the origin of the ADF and EDX incoherence from scattering physics suggesting a linear dependence between those two signals in the case of a high-angle ADF detector. Taking EDX as a perfect incoherent reference mode, we quantitatively examine the ADF longitudinal incoherence under different microscope conditions using multislice simulations. Based on incoherent imaging, the atomic lensing model previously developed for ADF is now expanded to EDX, which yields ADF-EDX scattering cross-section predictions in good agreement with multislice simulations for mixed columns in a core–shell nanoparticle and a high entropy alloy. The fast and accurate prediction of ADF-EDX scattering cross-sections opens up new opportunities to explore the wide range of ordering possibilities of heterogeneous materials with multiple elements.

Very-High Dynamic Range, 10,000 Frames/Second Pixel Array Detector for Electron Microscopy.

Precision and accuracy of quantitative scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) methods such as ptychography, and the mapping of electric, magnetic, and strain fields depend on the dose. Reasonable acquisition time requires high beam current and the ability to quantitatively detect both large and minute changes in signal. A new hybrid pixel array detector (PAD), the second-generation Electron Microscope Pixel Array Detector (EMPAD-G2), addresses this challenge by advancing the technology of a previous generation PAD, the EMPAD. The EMPAD-G2 images continuously at a frame-rates up to 10 kHz with a dynamic range that spans from low-noise detection of single electrons to electron beam currents exceeding 180 pA per pixel, even at electron energies of 300 keV. The EMPAD-G2 enables rapid collection of high-quality STEM data that simultaneously contain full diffraction information from unsaturated bright-field disks to usable Kikuchi bands and higher-order Laue zones. Test results from 80 to 300 keV are presented, as are first experimental results demonstrating ptychographic reconstructions, strain and polarization maps. We introduce a new information metric, the maximum usable imaging speed (MUIS), to identify when a detector becomes electron-starved, saturated or its pixel count is mismatched with the beam current.

Substitutional synthesis of sub-nanometer InGaN/GaN quantum wells with high indium content

InGaN/GaN quantum wells (QWs) with sub-nanometer thickness can be employed in short-period superlattices for bandgap engineering of efficient optoelectronic devices, as well as for exploiting topological insulator behavior in III-nitride semiconductors. However, it had been argued that the highest indium content in such ultra-thin QWs is kinetically limited to a maximum of 33%, narrowing down the potential range of applications. Here, it is demonstrated that quasi two-dimensional (quasi-2D) QWs with thickness of one atomic monolayer can be deposited with indium contents far exceeding this limit, under certain growth conditions. Multi-QW heterostructures were grown by plasma-assisted molecular beam epitaxy, and their composition and strain were determined with monolayer-scale spatial resolution using quantitative scanning transmission electron microscopy in combination with atomistic calculations. Key findings such as the self-limited QW thickness and the non-monotonic dependence of the QW composition on the growth temperature under metal-rich growth conditions suggest the existence of a substitutional synthesis mechanism, involving the exchange between indium and gallium atoms at surface sites. The highest indium content in this work approached 50%, in agreement with photoluminescence measurements, surpassing by far the previously regarded compositional limit. The proposed synthesis mechanism can guide growth efforts towards binary InN/GaN quasi-2D QWs.

Optimization of imaging conditions for composition determination by annular dark field STEM

Quantitative scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) allows composition determination for nanomaterials at an atomic scale. To improve the accuracy of the results obtained, optimized imaging parameters should be chosen for annular dark field imaging. In a simulation study, we investigate the influence of imaging parameters on the accuracy of the composition determination with the example of ternary III-V semiconductors. It is shown that inner and outer detector angles and semi-convergence angle can be optimized, also in dependence on specimen thickness. Both, a minimum sampling of the image and a minimum electron dose are required. These findings are applied experimentally by using a fast pixelated detector to allow free choice of detector angles.

Atomic scale investigation of aluminum incorporation, defects, and phase stability in β-(AlxGa1−x)2O3 films

The development of novel ultra-wide bandgap (UWBG) materials requires precise understanding of the atomic level structural origins that give rise to their important properties. We study the aluminum atom incorporation, defect formation, and their relationships with phase stability in β-(AlxGa1−x)2O3 films, a promising candidate for UWBG applications, to explain atomic scale structural characteristics and properties using a combination of quantitative scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) and density functional theory (DFT). Our STEM analysis indicates that ∼54% of the incorporated Al substitutes on the octahedrally coordinated Ga2 site in a series of films grown with different techniques and alloy concentrations. DFT calculations show that, while Al energetically prefers the octahedral site, surface reconstructions and kinetic limitations during the epitaxial growth are responsible for Al occupying both octahedral and tetrahedral sites in (AlxGa1−x)2O3, ultimately limiting the stability of the β-phase at x < ∼50%. Local heterogeneity of composition results in the formation of a planar defect, affecting the stability of the β-phase. The similarity of such inclusions to the metastable γ-phase is discussed.

Influence of plasmon excitations on atomic-resolution quantitative 4D scanning transmission electron microscopy

Scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) allows to gain quantitative information on the atomic-scale structure and composition of materials, satisfying one of todays major needs in the development of novel nanoscale devices. The aim of this study is to quantify the impact of inelastic, i.e. plasmon excitations (PE), on the angular dependence of STEM intensities and answer the question whether these excitations are responsible for a drastic mismatch between experiments and contemporary image simulations observed at scattering angles below sim 40 mrad. For the two materials silicon and platinum, the angular dependencies of elastic and inelastic scattering are investigated. We utilize energy filtering in two complementary microscopes, which are representative for the systems used for quantitative STEM, to form position-averaged diffraction patterns as well as atomically resolved 4D STEM data sets for different energy ranges. The resulting five-dimensional data are used to elucidate the distinct features in real and momentum space for different energy losses. We find different angular distributions for the elastic and inelastic scattering, resulting in an increased low-angle intensity (sim 10–40 mrad). The ratio of inelastic/elastic scattering increases with rising sample thickness, while the general shape of the angular dependency is maintained. Moreover, the ratio increases with the distance to an atomic column in the low-angle regime. Since PE are usually neglected in image simulations, consequently the experimental intensity is underestimated at these angles, which especially affects bright field or low-angle annular dark field imaging. The high-angle regime, however, is unaffected. In addition, we find negligible impact of inelastic scattering on first-moment imaging in momentum-resolved STEM, which is important for STEM techniques to measure internal electric fields in functional nanostructures. To resolve the discrepancies between experiment and simulation, we present an adopted simulation scheme including PE. This study highlights the necessity to take into account PE to achieve quantitative agreement between simulation and experiment. Besides solving the fundamental question of missing physics in established simulations, this finally allows for the quantitative evaluation of low-angle scattering, which contains valuable information about the material investigated.

Nanoscale Estimation of Coating Thickness on Substrates via Standardless BSE Detector Calibration

The thickness of electron transparent samples can be measured in an electron microscope using several imaging techniques like electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS) or quantitative scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM). We extrapolate this method for using a back-scattered electron (BSE) detector in the scanning electron microscope (SEM). This brings the opportunity to measure the thickness not just of the electron transparent samples on TEM mesh grids, but, in addition, also the thickness of thin films on substrates. Nevertheless, the geometry of the microscope and the BSE detector poses a problem with precise calibration of the detector. We present a simple method which can be used for such a type of detector calibration that allows absolute (standardless) measurement of thickness, together with a proof of the method on test samples.

Lattice relaxations around individual dopant atoms in SrTiO3

The local atomic structure around individual dopant atoms can directly influence the electronic properties of a doped material. Here, we use quantitative scanning transmission electron microscopy to study the local lattice relaxations around Sm dopant atoms in $\mathrm{SrTi}{\mathrm{O}}_{3}$ thin films. These films have recently been shown to undergo successive ferroelectric and superconducting transitions when strained. We show that neighboring Ti-O columns move away from the columns that contain Sm dopants. The observed displacements are, however, more complex than a simple outward expansion of all four surrounding Ti-O columns. We discuss potential implications, especially for the ferroelectric transition observed in strained films.

Composition determination for quaternary III–V semiconductors by aberration-corrected STEM

Quantitative scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) is a powerful tool for the characterization of nano-materials. Absolute composition determination for ternary III–V semiconductors by direct comparison of experiment and simulation is well established. Here, we show a method to determine the composition of quaternary III–V semiconductors with two elements on each sub lattice from the intensities of one STEM image. As an example, this is applied to (GaIn)(AsBi). The feasibility of the method is shown in a simulation study that also explores the influence of detector angles and specimen thickness. Additionally, the method is applied to an experimental STEM image of a (GaIn)(AsBi) quantum well grown by metal organic vapour phase epitaxy. The obtained concentrations are in good agreement with X-ray diffraction and photoluminescence results.

Study of the Q′ (Q)-phase precipitation in Al–Mg–Si–Cu alloys by quantification of atomic-resolution transmission electron microscopy images and atom probe tomography

The precipitation mechanism of the Q phase in Al–Mg–Si–Cu alloys has long been the subject of ambiguity and debate since its metastable phase (Q′) has the same crystal structure and similar lattice parameters as its equilibrium counterparts. In the present work, the evolution of the Q′ (Q) phase during aging is studied by combination of quantitative atomic-resolution scanning transmission electron microscopy and atom probe tomography. It was found that the transformation from the Q′ to the Q phase involves changes of the occupancy of Al atoms in atomic columns of the Q′ (Q) phase. The Al atoms incorporated in the Cu, Si and Mg columns are gradually released into the Al matrix, while mixing between Cu and Si atoms occurs in the Si columns. This transformation process is mainly attributed to the low lattice misfit of the equilibrium Q phase. Besides, the formation of various compositions of the Q phase is due to the different occupancy in the atomic columns of the Q phase. The occupancy changes in the columns of the Q phase are kinetically controlled and are strongly influenced by the alloy composition and aging temperature.

Can one determine the density of an individual synthetic macromolecule?

Dendronized polymers (DPs) are large and compact main-chain linear polymers with a cylindrical shape and cross-sectional diameters of up to ∼15 nm. They are therefore considered molecular objects, and it was of interest whether given their experimentally accessible, well-defined dimensions, the density of individual DPs could be determined. We present measurements on individual, deposited DP chains, providing molecular dimensions from scanning and transmission electron microscopy and mass-per-length values from quantitative scanning transmission electron microscopy. These results are compared with density values obtained from small-angle X-ray scattering on annealed bulk specimen and with classical envelope density measurements, obtained using hydrostatic weighing or a density gradient column. The samples investigated comprise a series of DPs with side groups of dendritic generations g = 1-8. The key findings are a very large spread of the density values over all samples and methods, and a consistent increase of densities with g over all methods. While this work highlights the advantages and limitations of the applied methods, it does not provide a conclusive answer to the question of which method(s) to use for the determination of densities of individual molecular objects. We are nevertheless confident that these first attempts to answer this challenging question will stimulate more research into this important aspect of polymer and soft matter science.

Joint non-rigid image registration and reconstruction for quantitative atomic resolution scanning transmission electron microscopy

Aberration corrected scanning transmission electron microscopes (STEM) enable to determine local strain fields, composition and bonding states at atomic resolution. The precision to locate atomic columns is often obstructed by scan artifacts limiting the quantitative interpretation of STEM datasets. Here, a novel bias-corrected non-rigid registration approach is presented that compensates for fast and slow scan artifacts in STEM image series. The bias-correction is responsible for the correction of the slow scan artifacts and based on a explicit coupling of the deformations of the individual images in a series via a minimization of the average deformation. This allows to reduce fast scan noise in an image series and slow scan distortions simultaneously. The novel approach is tested on synthetic and experimental images and its implication on atomic resolution strain and elemental mapping is discussed.

Topological Defects with Distinct Dipole Configurations in PbTiO_{3}/SrTiO_{3} Multilayer Films.

Distinct and novel features of nanometric electric topological defects, including dipole waves and dipole disclinations, are presently revealed in the PbTiO_{3} layers of PbTiO_{3}/SrTiO_{3} multilayer films by means of quantitative high-resolution scanning transmission electron microscopy. These original dipole configurations are confirmed and explained by atomistic simulations and have the potential to act as functional elements in future electronics.

Thickness dependence of scattering cross-sections in quantitative scanning transmission electron microscopy

In quantitative scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM), scattering cross-sections have been shown to be very sensitive to the number of atoms in a column and its composition. They correspond to the integrated intensity over the atomic column and they outperform other measures. As compared to atomic column peak intensities, which saturate at a given thickness, scattering cross-sections increase monotonically. A study of the electron wave propagation is presented to explain the sensitivity of the scattering cross-sections. Based on the multislice algorithm, we analyse the wave propagation inside the crystal and its link to the scattered signal for the different probe positions contained in the scattering cross-section for detector collection in the low-, middle- and high-angle regimes. The influence to the signal from scattering of neighbouring columns is also discussed.

Solvent-Controlled Charge Storage Mechanisms of Spinel Oxide Electrodes in Mg Organohaloaluminate Electrolytes.

Considering the improved safety, reduced cost, and high volumetric energy density associated with Mg batteries, this technology has distinct advantages for large-scale energy storage compared to other existing battery technologies. However, the divalency of the Mg2+ cation cause sluggish magnesiation kinetics in crystalline host materials, resulting in poor performance with regards to capacity and cycling stability for intercalation based electrodes. Here, we present a Mg battery using Mn3O4 as the electrode material and Mg metal as the counter electrode in a Mg organohaloaluminate electrolyte. The reversible capacity when Mn3O4 was used as cathode reached ∼580 mAh g-1 at a current density of 15.4 mA g-1, whereas a reversible capacity of ∼1800 mAh g-1 was obtained in an anode configuration. The Mn3O4 in a cathode configuration shows excellent cycling stability with no loss of capacity after 500 cycles at a current density of 770 mA g-1. As an anode, Mn3O4 retained 86% of its initial capacity after 200 cycles. These exceptional charge storage properties and high cycling stability are attributed to highly reversible interfacial reactions involving the electrolyte solvents. Our conclusions are supported by density functional theory calculations in addition to quantitative kinetics analysis and scanning transmission electron microscopy combined with energy dispersive spectroscopy and electron energy loss spectroscopy.

Effect of ionic strength on the structure and elongational kinetics of vimentin filaments

Intermediate filaments are a major structural element in the cytoskeleton of animal cells that mechanically integrate other cytoskeletal components and absorb externally applied stress. Their role is likely to be linked to their complex molecular architecture which is the product of a multi-step assembly pathway. Intermediate filaments form tetrameric subunits which assemble in the presence of monovalent salts to form unit length filaments that subsequently elongate by end-to-end annealing. The present work characterizes this complex assembly process using reconstituted vimentin intermediate filaments with monovalent salts as an assembly trigger. A multi-scale approach is used, comprising static light scattering, dynamic light scattering and quantitative scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) mass measurements. Light scattering reveals the radius of gyration (Rg), molecular weight (Mw) and diffusion coefficient (D) of the assembling filaments as a function of time and salt concentration (cS) for the given protein concentration of 0.07 g L-1. At low cS (10 mM KCl) no lateral or elongational growth is observed, whereas at cS = 50-200 mM, the hydrodynamic cross-sectional radius and the elongation rate increases with cS. Rgversus Mw plots suggest that the mass per unit length increases with increasing salt content, which is confirmed by STEM mass measurements. A kinetic model based on rate equations for a two step process is able to accurately describe the variation of mass, length and diffusion coefficient of the filaments with time and provides a consistent description of the elongation accelerated by increasing cS.