Qualitative Comparative Analysis Research Articles

Configurational Paths to Arouse Tourists’ Positive Experiences in Smart Tourism Destinations: A fsQCA Approach

The issue this study explores is to investigate the determinants of smart tourism destinations (STDs) on tourists’ experiences. To address this issue, this study purports to identify different configuration paths of determinants that lead to tourists’ positive experiences in STDs and explain the mechanism of the configuration effects of different determinants. The fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis (fsQCA) method was adopted to conduct a survey on 266 tourists who went to five Chinese STDs between 2021 and 2022. Smart tourism technologies, smart destination governance, personalized service, and smart infrastructure, co-creation formed distinct combination paths through different configurations. The findings demonstrated that smart infrastructure and co-creation are necessary conditions to arouse tourists’ positive experiences. The results of fsQCA analysis further revealed five causal configurations leading to tourists’ positive experiences. The study provides theoretical and practical implications for STDs to design effective tourism services as well as enhance tourists’ overall experiences.

Investigating the Transition Upgrading Paths of Manufacturing Enterprises From an Energy Source Perspective

As the manufacturing industry is the foundation of the national economy, many countries have made concerted efforts to promote the transition upgrading of manufacturing enterprises from political, industrial, and academic circles. This study employed content analysis to explore the transition upgrading factors for manufacturing enterprises from an energy source perspective. With the help of FsQCA (Fuzzy-sets qualitative comparative analysis), which can mine multivariate combination relationships using a small number of samples, this study quantitatively calculated the transition paths and energy source combinations of manufacturing enterprises. Three transition upgrading paths were proposed, including an innovation-oriented path, a business-oriented path, and an efficiency-oriented path. The results indicate that manufacturing enterprises can realize transition upgrading based on three key methods, including innovation resources and innovation activities, strategic layout, and production operation + network relationship (peripheral). Such a finding validated the rationality of the theoretical path design and improved the research depth and precision. Multiple case analyses of Huawei, Haier, and Lenovo reveal that manufacturing enterprises used three ways to promote transition upgrading: the joint action of innovation activities and innovation resources; the uni-directional causal effect of strategic layout adjustment to increase market value; and the coordination and matching role of network relations dominated by production and operation. We conclude that this study provides an effective decision-making basis and management reference for manufacturing enterprises, so that enterprises can choose an appropriate energy accumulation method and scientifically realize the transition upgrading.

The Configurational Paths in BoP Rural E-Commerce Entrepreneurial Opportunity: A Fuzzy-Set Qualitative Comparative Analysis

Bottom of the pyramid (BoP) e-commerce entrepreneurship has emerged as a new phenomenon in China’s rural regions, but its origins have not been thoroughly explored. This study analyzed the shaping of entrepreneurial opportunity (EO) based on the entrepreneurial ecosystem theory as the study framework. A questionnaire survey was conducted among 213 rural e-commerce practitioners in Guangdong and Wuling Mountains, China, using the fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis approach to study the various factors and causal mechanisms affecting EOs. Our findings highlight the following: 1) there is no single necessary condition for high BoP rural e-commerce EO formation. However, low human capital leads to nonhigh BoP rural e-commerce EO formation; 2) the driving mechanisms for high BoP rural e-commerce EO are of three types (five paths): government-led, dual-interaction between government and potential subjects, and market-led; and 3) there is an asymmetry between the driving mechanisms of high and nonhigh entrepreneurship opportunity formation in rural e-commerce. The findings of this article contribute to the expansion of the entrepreneurial ecosystem theory’s application in rural e-commerce entrepreneurship and provide practical implications for the BoP population in effectively obtaining EOs in rural e-commerce.

Explaining Enterprise Litigation Success with fsQCA: The Role of Local Economic Environment, Policy Preferences, Case Complexity, and Party Capability

Since the initiation of reforms and the opening-up policy in China, enterprises have played a pivotal role as a key pillar of local economic growth. Within the context of harmonious labor relations, the effective means of assisting enterprises in safeguarding their particular interests during labor disputes remains unresolved. Fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis (fsQCA) is able to capture a higher degree of complexity by testing theory-based conditions and environmental effects rather than focusing on a single effect of a single variable. Therefore, coming from a new institutionalist perspective, this study employed fsQCA to explore the causal relationships among factors including local economic environment, policy preferences, case complexity, party capability, and enterprise litigation success. Analyzing data from 28,685 labor dispute cases from Guangdong Province between 2015 and 2019, and utilizing enterprise data from the China Economic Information Network and the National Enterprise Credit Information Publicity System, we found that: (1) it is difficult for enterprises to succeed substantially in a single-antecedent condition; (2) There are four pathways to forming high enterprise victory, each involving different configurations of eight conditions; and (3) Judicial preference, employee legal representative, and enterprise legal representative are central elements in all aforementioned pathways, even if they are not necessary conditions for the success of high enterprises. The research results enrich our understanding of the current style of institutionalism, providing a valuable reference point for effectively improving the legal success of enterprises and improving the harmonious development of labor relations, with far-reaching implications for the further study of the judicial protection of enterprise rights under the socialist system.

Breaking free from the “digital rabbit hole”: A configurational analysis of in-class smartphone distraction among university students

Smartphone distraction is pervasive in university classrooms, yet our understanding of its determinants remains incomplete. Drawing on complexity theory and the technology–personal–environment framework, this study employs multiple data sets for exploring the primary predictors and their configurations in determining in-class smartphone distraction among university students. Based on the interview data from 15 undergraduate students, seven primary predictors of smartphone distraction were identified. Subsequently, the study delved into the questionnaire data collected from 563 Chinese university students and revealed four combinations of the predictors for in-class smartphone distraction through fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis. This study contributes to the literature on in-class smartphone distraction by revealing its complex nature and offering practical strategies for educational practitioners to counteract the adverse effects of smartphone distraction in university classrooms.

한국 녹색 ODA 메커니즘 변화에 대한 연구

Purpose: This study analyzes changes in the mechanism of South Korea’s Green ODA to ASEAN-Korea partner countries.
 Originality: The allocation of Green ODA support cannot be comprehensively explained by neither the donor country interest model nor the recipient country need model. Thus, it is essential to broaden the discussion by considering various combinations of conditions that impact the allocation of Green ODA.
 Methodology: Utilizing Fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis, this study identifies the changing allocation patterns of South Korea's Green ODA. Subsequently, case studies were conducted based on the results of the combination of causal conditions.
 Result: In 2006 and 2011, the causal conditions converged into the same combination. However, two distinct patterns were identified in 2021. Both combinations are characterized by low trade volumes and a low democracy index from the donors’ interest, as well as by lower exports of eco-friendly products and a lower GDP per capita from the recipients’ need. Despite these shared traits, differences emerged in FDI and environmental vulnerability. These results underline how unique combinations of factors influence Green ODA distribution differently. Detailed case studies on Cambodia and Laos, particularly the latter, illustrate scenarios where conventional criteria of donor country's interests and recipient country's needs were not met. Despite this, a significant level of Green ODA was still secured.
 Conclusion and Implication: This study contributed to enhance Green ODA's integral role in global environmental governance, emphasizing the importance of formulating Green ODA strategies that aligned with the environmental goals and unique socio-economic contexts of recipient countries.

Greening China’s digital economy: exploring the contribution of the East–West Computing Resources Transmission Project to CO2 reduction

China’s East–West Computing Resources Transmission Project (EWCRT Project) is a unique and innovative path toward developing China’s green digital economy. The EWCRT Project consists of building transregional digital infrastructure, including eight data center hubs and 10 data center clusters across China. Our estimations indicate that the EWCRT Project could result in a reduction of 2125 metric tons (Mt) of CO2 between 2020 and 2050. Combined with other improvement measures, such as an increase in power usage effectiveness (PUE) and a boost in the use of green electricity in these data centers, the project could result in a reduction of 9500 Mt of carbon emissions over the next three decades. Recognizing the heterogeneous makeup of data centers in general, it is crucial to identify diverse strategies that can transform each into “green engines” for the digital economy. Therefore, in this study, we use fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis (fsQCA) to characterize the complex conditions of different data center configurations. By doing so, we highlight differentiated strategies for data centers to support the greening of the digital economy.

Exploring the Link between Organisational Performance Pressures and the Factors that Compromise Ethical Leadership

Purpose: This research paper explores the link between threat-appraised organizational performance pressure and factors that compromise ethical leadership. Design/Methodology/Approach: The study uses a qualitative approach, using a rank-type Delphi method and administered questionnaires to 40 academic and practitioner experts and 10 organisational leaders. The collected data was analysed through qualitative comparative analysis (QCA). Results: The findings provide empirical evidence of the detrimental impact of threat-appraised performance pressure on ethical leadership behaviour. Four themes are identified as top-ranked organisational performance pressures and factors compromising ethical leadership: market share growth pressure, pressure to present positive financial statements, pressure to achieve greater efficiency, and competitive pressure linked to several factors that compromise ethical leadership. Practical Implications: This research has practical implications for academics, ethics practitioners, policymakers, and organizations, emphasising the importance of mitigating the negative consequences of performance pressures on ethical decision-making. The research supports the development of effective measures, training programs, and ethical frameworks to navigate ethical challenges posed by performance pressures, contributing to long-term success and sustainability. Originality/Value This research contributes novel insights to the field of ethical leadership by exploring the relationship between organisational performance pressures and factors compromising ethical leadership. It fills a significant gap in empirical evidence and advances our understanding of how performance pressures can impact ethical leadership behaviour. The rigorous methodology, comprehensive analysis, and practical implications make it valuable for academics, researchers, practitioners, and policymakers. Keywords: ethical leadership, performance pressure, qualitative comparative analysis, Delphi method, dishonesty, unfairness, low moral judgement, lack of accountability

Factors Explaining the Use of Web-Based Consultations With Physicians by Young and Middle-Aged Individuals in China: Qualitative Comparative Analysis.

It was only upon the occurrence of the COVID-19 pandemic that the demand for web-based consultations with physicians grew at unprecedented rates. To meet the demand, the service environment developed rapidly during the pandemic. This study aimed to identify the current status of the use of web-based consultations with physicians among young and middle-aged Chinese individuals and explore users' perspectives on key factors that influence its use in terms of optimizing benefits and compensating for disadvantages. We conducted semistructured interviews with 65 individuals (aged 18 to 60 years) across China between September and October 2022. The interviewees were selected through snowball sampling. They described their experiences of using web-based physician consultations and the reasons for using or not using the service. Based on the Andersen Behavioral Model, a qualitative comparative analysis was used to analyze the factors associated with the use of web-based physician consultations and explore the combinations of these factors. In all, 31 (48%) of the 65 interviewees used web-based consultation services. The singular necessary condition analysis revealed that the complementary role of the service and perceived convenience are necessary conditions for the use of web-based consultation services, and user's confidence in the service was a sufficient condition. Based on the Andersen Behavioral Model, the configuration analysis uncovered 2 interpretation models: an enabling-oriented model and a need-oriented model. The basic combination of the enabling-oriented model included income and perceived convenience. The basic combination of the need-oriented model included complementary role and user's confidence. Among the factors associated with the use of web-based consultations, perceived convenience, complementary role, and user's confidence were essential factors. Clear instructions on the conduct of the service, cost regulations, provider qualifications guarantee, privacy and safety supervision, the consultations' application in chronic disease management settings, and subsequent visits can promote the positive development of web-based consultations.

Биологично производство – ефективност и ефикасност в контекста на агроекологията

Over the past 70 years, farming in Europe has changed thanks to policies, technologies and practices that aimed to ensure a stable supply of food at affordable prices. But this success was achieved at the cost of an increasingly deteriorating environment. It is therefore important to highlight the potential of more sustainable alternatives. Organic farming (OF) is an integral part and instrument of the state policy in the field of agriculture in terms of sustainable management of natural resources, compliance with high standards for food quality and safety, and animal welfare. At the same time, OF contributes to the development of viable rural areas. That is why it is a key priority in the agricultural development policy in the EU and in the Republic of Bulgaria and one of the highlights of the CAP for the next program period. Organic production benefits nature and society as a production system that contributes to the reduction of air, soil and water pollution; to increase biodiversity, strengthen the sustainability of agriculture, to ensure healthy food and clean nature for current and future generations, and as such it organically fits into the requirements of the new CAP. The research aims to determine the efficiency and effectiveness of organic production in our country, in the context of the changes, development and dimensions that the implementation of the CAP has on agriculture and more specifically on agroecology. For the purposes of the study, data for the efficiency are compared for Bulgaria and on average for the European Union, by calculating the efficiency coefficient of OF. The calculation of the coefficients of efficiency and effectiveness is done in a way borrowed from Ivanov (Bachev et al., 2020), and the efficiency is considered in relation to the role of the provided compensatory payments (subsidies) in the sector by year. The years from 2010 to 2019 were mainly tracked, and for some of the indicators, data up to 2020 was used. The study is based on and is part of the work on the research project “Perspectives for Bulgarian agriculture and rural areas in the context of CAP 2021 – 2027 and the EU Recovery Plan”, developed by a team led by associate professor Bozhidar Ivanov, IAE, Agricultural Academy – Sofia in 2021 – 2022. The research used the methodology developed for the purposes of the above-mentioned project, using a corresponding algorithm, combining quantitative and qualitative methods, literature research, comparative, institutional and multi-criteria analysis, method of groupings, value-measurement and qualitative analysis, method of relative comparative assessment, indicator method, including efficiency and effectiveness coefficients (Ivanov et al., 2023). The current research establishes that organic production in our country has a changing performance during the period 2010 – 2019. Efficiency – increasing in almost all indicators until 2014 – 2017, and decreasing thereafter. This is calculated on the basis of public support for the sector and shows that support plays an essential role in the development and effectiveness of OF, but also that the change of the funds spent is not always synchronized and in accordance with the expected and obtained results, like a number of others factors also have their important role in increasing the efficiency of the sector. The efficiency of the OF sector is relatively low, although it shows an upward trend (starting, however, from a low base). The share of OF in UAA is still small and there is a need for further support and promotion of OF in our country in order to increase this share and reach the EU average level. The compensatory support per ha and animal, in combination with the provided priority support for investment measures and the higher intensity of financial support are an incentive for farmers to switch to organic production, as a result of which both the areas in the control system and the number of organic producers grew many times in the studied period.

Driving factors and grouping paths of rural sports development in China - A qualitative comparative analysis based on fuzzy sets.

The development of rural sports depends on many factors, but the complex causal relationship between various factors and the level of rural sports development is not clear. Using data envelopment analysis (DEA) and fuzzy set qualitative comparative analysis (fsQCA), this study aims to examine the driving role of various factors on rural sports development and construct various grouping paths to improve the level of rural sports development in China. The results shows that the area of fitness venues and social capital participation are sufficient conditions for the development of rural sports in China. Resource endowment through government fing, social capital participation and the construction of sports venues and facilities is the key driving factor for rural sports development in China. There are four grouping paths for the high-quality development of rural sports, which are divided into three configurations by combining the grouping characteristics: the state-social capital jointly controlled type driven by economic development and the resource endowment driven by the modernization of the agriculture promotes production and the grassroots organizations that are supported by the advantage of resource endowment. The results of the study highlight the complex causal relationships and key driving factors of rural sports development in China, highlight the differences in rural sports development patterns in different regions, and provide new ideas and guidelines for improving the level and quality of rural sports development.

The green space dilemma: Pathways to greening with and without gentrification

ABSTRACT Green gentrification posits that urban greening initiatives (e.g., large new parks) can fuel gentrification. To help cities avoid this greening dilemma, this study examines the conditions under which urban greening did or did not promote neighborhood gentrification in Chicago from 2010 to 2020. Using Qualitative Comparative Analysis, we find that a large new park alone did not cause gentrification, but it did when located within areas experiencing gentrification spillover effects and lacking both preexisting green space and government-assisted public housing. Conversely, a large new park in areas that already have adequate green space amounts per resident did not spur gentrification, even if the area has a lower level of government-subsidized public housing. Our findings underscore the role of the preexisting green space infrastructure and the need for a nuanced understanding of the local context when planning and implementing urban greening projects to ensure just outcomes for all residents.

Understanding Chinese Tourists’ Future Travel Intention to Thailand: A Hybrid Approach Using Pls-Sem and fsQCA

China holds the position of top spender in international tourism. Despite that Chinese tourists’ behaviors have been researched extensively, limited attention has been given to understanding their travel intention towards Thailand, a popular destination in Southeast Asia. This study proposes a theoretical framework via extended theory of planned behavior (TPB) model to ascertain factors influencing Chinese tourists’ travel intention to Thailand. With 261 data collected online, the study carried out analysis by using partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) and fuzzy set qualitative comparative analysis (fsQCA). The results revealed that the predictability of the extended TPB model was improved, highlighted tourists’ attitudes and destination attachments played pivotal roles in determining tourists’ travel intentions, and perceived behavioral control positively affected attitude. Moreover, tourists’ attitudes and subjective norm significantly influenced destination attachment. The mediation analysis revealed that the effects of attitude and subjective norm on travel intention were transferred through their attachments. The fsQCA analysis identified four heterogenous configurations to generate tourists’ travel intention. Methodologically, the study advanced the theoretical understanding of extended TPB model via a mixed approach of PLS-SEM and fsQCA, and obtained a unique perspective of interdependencies among various factors that influence tourists’ travel intention and behaviors. Managerial implications are provided to comparable tourism destinations across Asia to appeal prospective tourists.

Effectiveness evaluation of China's water resource tax reform pilot and path optimization from the perspective of policy field.

The water resource tax reform played an important role in promoting sustainable development in China. Subsequent to the seven-year reform, the effectiveness evaluation of the policy in each pilot area and the exploration of the optimization path directly affected the promotion of water resource tax policy and the improvement of water use efficiency. Therefore, the theoretical framework of the water resource tax policy field was constructed to examine the mechanism of the three subsystems of policy scenario, policy orientation, and policy effect; fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis (fsQCA) was then used to evaluate and quantitatively compare the policy implementation effect and policy path in each pilot area, with emphasis put on three policy orientations, i.e., the decision and decomposition effect of policy goals, the selection and im plementation effect of policy tools, and the policy supervision and security effect. As shown by the research results: ① the water resource tax reform had effectively improved the efficiency of water resource utilization in the pilot areas; ② three pilot models of water resource tax policy had been extracted, namely the policy goal and tool-driven model centering on a single dimension of the policy field, the implementation-supervision dual drive model emphasizing the supervision and security effect of the policy, and the three-dimensional policy orientation linkage model that focused on the synergistic effect of the policy field; ③ strong heterogeneity existed in water resource tax policy implementation paths and effects in each pilot area. Accordingly, regional heterogeneity could be considered in the process of reform to construct institutionalized, precise, and differentiated reform implementation methods from the perspective of the policy field.

Radical Change and Dominant Character of Digital Transformation in Artificial Intelligence Entrepreneurship in Less Innovative Economies

AbstractThe company’s rapid adaptation to digital transformation (DT) both in the most innovative economies and in the less innovative economies is one of the topics that keeps the field of innovation studies very busy but also governments. The artificial intelligence (AI) sector is one of the areas that is having the greatest degree of influence due to the effects of DT. While it is true that with DT these companies have a high potential for innovation, it is also true that their business models require a permanent readaptation process with the dynamics and complexity of technological changes. This research contributes to help companies to understand the complexity and dynamics of DT. Through a set of configurations based on the qualitative comparative analysis (QCA) method, it is possible to identify the positioning of the companies in the artificial intelligence sector in relation to this technological pattern. One of the most relevant conclusions is that the construction of configurations related to radical changes allows companies to observe the complexity and dynamics of these changes.

Unravelling the entrepreneurial ecosystem conditions spurring the global value chains: a configurational approach

PurposeDespite the popularity of the entrepreneurial ecosystem (EE) concept, research on its value-adding activities receives less attention. Thus, in this article, the authors investigate the role of EEs in supporting global value chain (GVC) activities.Design/methodology/approachThe authors employ the fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis (fsQCA) technique to identify practical configurations of EE’s framework and systemic conditions spurring GVC activities in 80 countries.FindingsThe findings suggest different configurations of EE`s framework and systemic conditions necessary for various GVC activities regarding input-output structure, geographical scope, upgrading, and forward and backward participation.Originality/valueThis study contributes to the extant literature by pioneering the EE approach to explaining GVC development. Moreover, the findings provide novel insights for understanding the EE – GVC interplay. As a result, the study offers a more nuanced understanding of how the EE supports GVC activities.

Understanding smartphone users’ app usage with restricted permissions

PurposeSmartphone apps collect users' personal information, which triggers privacy concerns for app users. Consequently, app users restrict apps from accessing their personal information. This may impact the effectiveness of in-app advertising. However, research has not yet demonstrated what factors impact app users' decisions to use apps with restricted permissions. This study is aimed to bridge this gap.Design/methodology/approachUsing a quantitative research method, the authors collected the data from 384 app users via a structured questionnaire. The data were analysed using AMOS and fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis (fsQCA).FindingsThe findings suggest privacy concerns and risks have a significant positive effect on app usage with restricted permissions, whilst reputation, trust and perceived benefits have significant negative impact on it. Some app-related factors, such as the number of apps installed and type of apps, also impact app usage with restricted permissions.Practical implicationsBased on the findings, the authors provided several implications for app stores, app developers and app marketers.Originality/valueThis study examines the factors that influence smartphone users' decisions to use apps with restricted permission requests. By doing this, the authors' study contributes to the consumer behaviour literature in the context of smartphone app usage. Also, by explaining the underlying mechanisms through which the principles of communication privacy management theory operate in smartphone app context, the authors' research contributes to the communication privacy management theory.

Die another day: explanations based on qualitative comparative analysis (QCA) for the survival and non-survival of isolated ski lifts in Switzerland

Abstract. In the form of an explorative empirical study, this paper deals with the reasons for the survival and demise of isolated Swiss ski lifts. For the first time, all isolated lifts documented in Switzerland have been recorded and coded according to a total of six conditions. Using a set-theoretical research method in the form of qualitative comparative analysis (QCA), the study aims to identify the necessary conditions and configurations of sufficient conditions explaining (non-)survival. It transpires that closed isolated lifts tend to be outdated and have no technical snowmaking facilities. Moreover, it has become evident that the simultaneous occurrence of the lack of lift facility replacement, lack of technical snowmaking and high ski area competition has caused the closure of most isolated lifts. Low natural snow depth and low elevation difference, conversely, have not had a measurable impact. The causes for the survival of isolated lifts, by contrast, are extremely heterogeneous.

Knowledge work characteristics and innovative behaviour: a fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis (fsQCA)

Purpose Innovative work behaviour (IWB) has long been advocated as a crucial resource for organisations. Evidence that work characteristics stimulate the adoption of IWB is widespread. Yet, the relationship between knowledge characteristics and IWB has often been overlooked. This study aims to address this gap by examining this relationship. Design/methodology/approach Building on an integrative vision of innovation, this study analyses the effects of combinations in work characteristics on IWB through a configurational approach. Job autonomy, complexity, problem solving, specialisation and demand for constant learning were examined as determinants of IWB using fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis. Findings Based on a sample of 214 Belgium employees, the results highlight seven configurations of work characteristics to elicit high levels of IWB. For six of them, problem solving appears as a needed condition. Practical implications Presented findings offer insights for organisations aiming at evolving in a competitive context to generate optimal conditions for promoting employee innovation. Originality/value While most studies have tested the influence of work characteristics independently, this research investigates the joint influence of work characteristics and identifies how combinations of multiple variables lead to IWB.

Background and clinical significance of biomarker-based patient enrichment in non-small-cell lung cancer drug development

Pharmaceutical companies have adopted biomarker-based enrichment (personalized) strategies to improve research and development productivity. We explored the background in which personalized strategies are adopted and examined whether their adoption is linked to improved efficacy of new drugs approved for non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) by US Food and Drug Administration (FDA). We extracted data from the first labels of drugs approved for NSCLC between May 2003 and February 2021, and performed a qualitative comparative analysis and meta-analysis. Personalized strategies were adopted in more than half of the trials (16/27) and were often used in trials aimed at obtaining first-line indications and in drugs that were not first-in-class. The meta-analysis showed that personalized trials had significantly improved progression-free survival (PFS) hazard ratio (HR) than trials without personalization but not for relative response rate ratio (RRR) or overall survival (OS) HR. Trials in which PFS HR was the primary endpoint tended to have improved PFS HR, and trials in which OS HR was the primary endpoint had worse PFS HR. The efficacy endpoints that are substantially affected by personalized strategies appear to differ, especially for new drugs with novel mechanism of action (MOA), because trial designs are employed to validate drug-specific advantages.