Qualified Types Research Articles

Soundly Handling Linearity

We propose a novel approach to soundly combining linear types with multi-shot effect handlers. circear type systems statically ensure that resources such as file handles and communication channels are used exactly once. Effect handlers provide a rich modular programming abstraction for implementing features ranging from exceptions to concurrency to backtracking. Whereas conventional linear type systems bake in the assumption that continuations are invoked exactly once, effect handlers allow continuations to be discarded (e.g. for exceptions) or invoked more than once (e.g. for backtracking). This mismatch leads to soundness bugs in existing systems such as the programming language Links, which combines linearity (for session types) with effect handlers. We introduce control-flow linearity as a means to ensure that continuations are used in accordance with the linearity of any resources they capture, ruling out such soundness bugs. We formalise the notion of control-flow linearity in a System F-style core calculus F eff ∘ equipped with linear types, an effect type system, and effect handlers. We define a linearity-aware semantics in order to formally prove that F eff ∘ preserves the integrity of linear values in the sense that no linear value is discarded or duplicated. In order to show that control-flow linearity can be made practical, we adapt circks based on the design of F eff ∘ , in doing so fixing a long-standing soundness bug. Finally, to better expose the potential of control-flow linearity, we define an ML-style core calculus Q eff ∘ , based on qualified types, which requires no programmer provided annotations, and instead relies entirely on type inference to infer control-flow linearity. Both linearity and effects are captured by qualified types. Q eff ∘ overcomes a number of practical limitations of F eff ∘ , supporting abstraction over linearity, linearity dependencies between type variables, and a much more fine-grained notion of control-flow linearity.

Linearly qualified types: generic inference for capabilities and uniqueness

A linear parameter must be consumed exactly once in the body of its function. When declaring resources such as file handles and manually managed memory as linear arguments, a linear type system can verify that these resources are used safely. However, writing code with explicit linear arguments requires bureaucracy. This paper presents linear constraints, a front-end feature for linear typing that decreases the bureaucracy of working with linear types. Linear constraints are implicit linear arguments that are filled in automatically by the compiler. We present linear constraints as a qualified type system,together with an inference algorithm which extends GHC's existing constraint solver algorithm. Soundness of linear constraints is ensured by the fact that they desugar into Linear Haskell.

Disputed issues of interpretation of some qualified types of incitement to suicide

The article deals with qualified types of incitement to suicide, provided for in paragraph a of Part 2 of Article 110 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation. The author of the article acknowledges that the interpretation of relevant signs of the composition of incitement to suicide in the scientific literature and practice is not indisputable, and offers scientifically sound recommendations for their definition in order to apply them uniformly in the qualification of crimes. With regard to the qualified composition of incitement to suicide committed against a person who is obviously helpless for the perpetrator, it is recommended to interpret the sign helpless state in a narrower semantic meaning than is provided for the purposes of the compositions of murder (Part 2 of Article 105) and rape (Part 1 of Article 131) of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation. The article substantiates the conclusion that the helpless state of the victim in the sense of Article 110 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation cannot be attributed, for example, unconsciousness; young age; a state of mental disorder of a person that deprives him of the ability to correctly perceive what is happening.

Partial type constructors: or, making ad hoc datatypes less ad hoc

Functional programming languages assume that type constructors are total. Yet functional programmers know better: counterexamples range from container types that make limiting assumptions about their contents (e.g., requiring computable equality or ordering functions) to type families with defining equations only over certain choices of arguments. We present a language design and formal theory of partial type constructors, capturing the domains of type constructors using qualified types. Our design is both simple and expressive: we support partial datatypes as first-class citizens (including as instances of parametric abstractions, such as the Haskell Functor and Monad classes), and show a simple type elaboration algorithm that avoids placing undue annotation burden on programmers. We show that our type system rejects ill-defined types and can be compiled to a semantic model based on System F. Finally, we have conducted an experimental analysis of a body of Haskell code, using a proof-of-concept implementation of our system; while there are cases where our system requires additional annotations, these cases are rarely encountered in practical Haskell code.

Criminal and Legal Characteristics of Theft and Fraud as Basic Personal Crimes Related to the Theft of Another Property

The article is devoted to the consideration of the criminal law characteristics of certain mercenary crimes related to the theft of another’s property, namely thefts and frauds. The relevance of the chosen subject is because theft and fraud are the most common types of theft of another's property. Thus, according to the analysis of legal statistics data, in Kazakhstan frauds take the second place among all types of crimes against property and are second only to thefts. At the same time, it was established that the types of acts prohibited by criminal law constitute more than half of the total number of pre-trial investigations.
 The author substantiates the position that the result of committing thefts and fraud should be causing damage directly to the owner or property owner, and not to someone else, therefore, when committing credit fraud, legal entities - banks should be recognized as the injured party.
 The article considers the points of view of researchers of criminal law, on the basis of which their own conclusions are formed, in particular, on determining the definition of ‘theft’, determining the age of criminal responsibility for committing qualified types of fraud, as well as on the need to introduce a qualified theft composition - committing theft from banking accounts, as well as in relation to electronic cash. Also reviewed recent changes in the legislation of Kazakhstan, which directly affected the criminal law, providing for liability for theft and fraud.

Older workers in the Russian labor market: Trends in employment reallocation

The paper analyzes changes in job opportunities of older workers in Russia in the period 2005—2017. The study uses the data from the Russian Labor Force Survey conducted by Rosstat. Changes in the occupational and industrial composition of elderly workers follow the trends pursued by other age groups: employment shifts from low- to high-skilled occupations, from physical to intellectual labor, and from material production to the service sector. We find a stronger polarization among older workers as their occupational structure is biased in favor of, on the one hand, the most and, on the other hand, the least qualified types of jobs. Employment of the elderly has fallen sharply in agriculture and manufacturing with a significant increase in trade, education, and health. Although the employment structure of older workers is generally more “traditionalist”, recent decades have witnessed its transformation in “progressive” directions, similarly to other age groups. These findings suggest that the legislated increase in the state retirement age is not likely to give rise to sizeable unemployment among the elderly. Most of them will be able to work in the occupations and industries previously dominated by young and prime-age workers.

AMENDMENT OF ARTICLE 209 OF THE PENAL CODE - LEGAL AND PRACTICAL ASPECTS

This article considers the legal and practical aspects of the amendment to Article 209 of the Penal Code, which provides for liability for evading maintenance obligations, determined by the number of court orders, settlements and other agreements. The necessity to change the regulations was justifi ed by the low recoverability of maintenance arrears and the relatively small number of indictments made against the perpetrators of these acts. The crime of not paying child maintenance is socially burdensome and generates signifi cant expenses from the state budget. The legislator, justifying the draft law, considered that its amendment would temporarily increase the burden of law enforcement, but the author cites arguments that this increase will be permanent and will affect not only the prosecutor’s offi ce and the police, but also other institutions which will be required to report information about the offender. However, for over a year after the introduction of the amendment, the authorities conducting preparatory proceedings have been overburdened. In addition, imprecise regulations make it diffi cult to interpret them and put them into practice. The study also addresses the issues of new institutions enabling the perpetrator to avoid liability for the act committed in connection with the payment of all maintenance arrears and the current penalties, as well as the signs of both the basic and qualifi ed types of the crime.

Regulatory mechanisms of the tax policy

In this article we justified the priority directions for the regulatory mechanism’s development, considering the importance to foster economic growth to increase the fiscal efficiency. We evaluated the level of taxation in Ukraine and the European Union. We found out that the tax structure has a significant impact on economic growth. Corporate tax is particularly harmful for economic growth, because affects the investment behavior of corporations that are making a significant contribution to total output. Taxes on labor have a greater negative effect on growth than the taxes on consumption because they are in progressive to a large degree, as well as they tax income from savings and investments. Our investigation showed that advanced economies more actively used the regulatory mechanisms of tax policy to stimulate new research and development, to increase investment in science-intensive production sectors. We propose the statements for introducing an investment tax credit on R&D, which is given at the initial stage of the innovation process and is calculated based on the amount of investment in the creation of qualified tangible and intangible assets, reducing the amount of actually accrued tax, which would stimulate capital investments in science-intensive sectors of the economy; an investment deduction of expenditures on R&D, which is calculated as a percentage from the sum of the actual or estimated costs for the creation, acquisition, or reconstruction of certain qualified types of tangible and intangible assets. In the survey a balanced approach to the tax policy in order to create financial conditions to counteract import expansion and to stimulate domestic export-oriented manufacturers is presented. Moreover, we proposed the tax incentives for the institutional motivational mechanism to stimulate economic development based on the innovative-investment approach, which would comply with the basic principles and guidelines of the advanced economic development.

Constrained type families

We present an approach to support partiality in type-level computation without compromising expressiveness or type safety. Existing frameworks for type-level computation either require totality or implicitly assume it. For example, type families in Haskell provide a powerful, modular means of defining type-level computation. However, their current design implicitly assumes that type families are total, introducing nonsensical types and significantly complicating the metatheory of type families and their extensions. We propose an alternative design, using qualified types to pair type-level computations with predicates that capture their domains. Our approach naturally captures the intuitive partiality of type families, simplifying their metatheory. As evidence, we present the first complete proof of consistency for a language with closed type families.

The best of both worlds: linear functional programming without compromise

We present a linear functional calculus with both the safety guarantees expressible with linear types and the rich language of combinators and composition provided by functional programming. Unlike previous combinations of linear typing and functional programming, we compromise neither the linear side (for example, our linear values are first-class citizens of the language) nor the functional side (for example, we do not require duplicate definitions of compositions for linear and unrestricted functions). To do so, we must generalize abstraction and application to encompass both linear and unrestricted functions. We capture the typing of the generalized constructs with a novel use of qualified types. Our system maintains the metatheoretic properties of the theory of qualified types, including principal types and decidable type inference. Finally, we give a formal basis for our claims of expressiveness, by showing that evaluation respects linearity, and that our language is a conservative extension of existing functional calculi.

Transitions of Diverse Precedent Phenomena in the Poetic Cycle of Dmitry Bykov “Citizen Poet”

The article considers a precedent phenomenon system illustrated with satirical texts of Dmitry Bykov “Citizen Poet”. It reveals complex transitions between divers precedent phenomena outside uniquely qualified types of precedents, there are: precedent situations and precedent names, precedent statements and precedent names, etc. Overlays, inclusions and transitivity of different precedent types have metonymic nature and generally lead to the formation of text meta-precedents. Use of the last mentioned in intra-cultural aesthetic communication indicates a potential unity of cultural space of the author and readers. DOI: 10.5901/mjss.2015.v6n3s6p163

A simple semantics for Haskell overloading

As originally proposed, type classes provide overloading and ad-hoc definition, but can still be understood (and implemented) in terms of strictly parametric calculi. This is not true of subsequent extensions of type classes. Functional dependencies and equality constraints allow the satisfiability of predicates to refine typing; this means that the interpretations of equivalent qualified types may not be interconvertible. Overlapping instances and instance chains allow predicates to be satisfied without determining the implementations of their associated class methods, introducing truly non-parametric behavior. We propose a new approach to the semantics of type classes, interpreting polymorphic expressions by the behavior of each of their ground instances, but without requiring that those behaviors be parametrically determined. We argue that this approach both matches the intuitive meanings of qualified types and accurately models the behavior of programs.

위스키 종류 및 숙성기간에 따른 향미 성분 변화의 비교

This study analyzes flavor ingredients according to types of whisky and maturation periods based on total 40 different types of whisky that are mainly distributed to Korea via imports. Whisky was classified into four categories based on origin, and also into different categories based on maturity period, ingredients such as fusel alcohol, fatty acid, and fatty acid esters and proportion of patterns were analyzed. As a result of an analysis for fusel alcohol, high qualified types of alcohol including 3-methylbutanol, 2-methylbutanol, iso-butanol, and 1-propanol were detected from all Scotch whiskys, America whiskys, and Canadian whiskys. In particular, the proportional sum of 3-methylbutanol and 2-methylbutanol, and the sum of 3-methylbutanol and 2-methylbutanol/iso-butanol were regarded as core factors to determine each type of whisky. Acetaldehyde, ethyl acetate, and acetic acid increased as maturation and storage period became longer. As a result of the fatty acid and fatty acid ethyl ester analysis, the major fatty acids were dodecanoic acid and decanoic acid, both with detection of octanoic acid and hexanoic acid. However, dodecanoic acid, decanoic acid, and octanoic acid were lower than the detectable limit in American and Canadian whiskys, showing a unique phenomenon that hexanoic acid was detected only in very small amounts. Malt Scotch whisky showed higher significance than blended Scotch whisky, making it possible to classify types of whisky. Fatty acid ethyl ester contents showed significance with fatty acid either. In addition, changes in the whiskys based on maturation period were confirmed via proportions of fatty acids and fatty acid ethyl esters. In general, the proportion of fatty acids and fatty acid ethyl esters decreased as the storage period increased. This study provided basic data to classify types of whisky based on maturation periods by analyzing the proportion of flavor ingredients such as fusel alcohols, fatty acids, and fatty acid ethyl esters.

A generic usage analysis with subeffect qualifiers

Sharing analysis and uniqueness typing are static analyses that aim at determining which of a program's objects are to be used at most once. There are many commonalities between these two forms of usage analysis. We make their connection precise by developing an expressive generic analysis that can be instantiated to both sharing analysis and uniqueness typing. The resulting system, which combines parametric polymorphism with effect subsumption, is specified within the general framework of qualified types, so that readily available tools and techniques can be used for the development of implementations and metatheory.

A constraint-based approach to guarded algebraic data types

We study HMG( X ), an extension of the constraint-based type system HM( X ) with deep pattern matching, polymorphic recursion, and guarded algebraic data types . Guarded algebraic data types subsume the concepts known in the literature as indexed types , guarded recursive datatype constructors , (first-class) phantom types , and equality qualified types , and are closely related to inductive types . Their characteristic property is to allow every branch of a case construct to be typechecked under different assumptions about the type variables in scope. We prove that HMG( X ) is sound and that, provided recursive definitions carry a type annotation, type inference can be reduced to constraint solving. Constraint solving is decidable, at least for some instances of X , but prohibitively expensive. Effective type inference for guarded algebraic data types is left as an issue for future research.

EL PRINCIPIO CONSTITUCIONAL DE NO DISCRIMINACIÓN BASADA EN EL SEXO Y LA NUEVA LEY DE PROTECCIÓN INTEGRAL CONTRA LA VIOLENCIA DE GÉNERO

Este trabajo analiza la denominada “violencia contra las mujeres” o “violencia de género” como tipo específico de violencia: manifestación de la discriminación basada en el sexo; de raíz ideológica en el sexismo y de carácter estructural, subrayando que para luchar contra ella es necesario un enfoque integral como el adoptado por la LO 1/2004. A continuación se examina dicha ley desde el punto de vista del principio constitucional de no discriminación basada en el sexo y se sostiene que, con carácter general, los tratamientos jurídicos diferenciados en función del sexo de la LO 1/2004 estarían justificados desde el punto de vista de la finalidad perseguida; que, además, satisfacen el parámetro de la proporcionalidad los establecidos en los ámbitos de los derechos sociales y laborales y judicial y que sería posible una interpretación conforme a la Constitución de los tipos penales cualificados en la línea de exigir un fundamento adicional para la agravación (el carácter discriminatorio de la conducta) y la concurrencia de ese fundamento adicional en el caso concreto.

Qualified types for MLF

MLF is a type system that extends a functional language with impredicative rank- n polymorphism. Type inference remains possible and only in some clearly defined situations, a local type annotation is required. Qualified types are a general concept that can accommodate a wide range of type systems extension, for example, type classes in Haskell. We show how the theory of qualified types can be used seamlessly with the higher-ranked impredicative polymorphism of MLF, and give a solution to the non-trivial problem of evidence translation in the presence of impredicative datatypes.

High-level views on low-level representations

This paper explains how the high-level treatment of datatypes in functional languages—using features like constructor functions and pattern matching—can be made to coexist with bitdata . We use this term to describe the bit- level representations of data that are required in the construction of many different applications, including operating systems, device drivers, and assemblers. We explain our approach as a combination of two language extensions, each of which could potentially be adapted to any modern functional language. The first adds simple and elegant constructs for manipulating raw bitfield values, while the second provides a view-like mechanism for defining distinct new bitdata types with fine-control over the underlying representation . Our design leverages polymorphic type inference, as well as techniques for improvement of qualified types, to track both the type and the width of bitdata structures. We have implemented our extensions in a small functional language interpreter, and used it to show that our approach can handle a wide range of practical bitdata types.

A theory of qualified types

This paper describes a general theory of overloading based on a system of qualified types. The central idea is the use of predicates in the type of a term, restricting the scope of universal quantification. A corresponding semantic notion of evidence is introduced and provides a uniform framework for implementing applications of this system, including Haskell style type classes, extensible records and subtyping. Working with qualified types in a simple, implicitly typed, functional language, we extend the Damas-Milner approach to type inference. As a result, we show that the set of all possible typings for a given term can be characterized by a principal type scheme, calculated by a type inference algorithm.